Nicholas Dirks: 바카라사이트 ¡®two cultures¡¯ must finally be reconciled

¡°Closing 바카라사이트 gap between our cultures is a necessity in 바카라사이트 most abstract intellectual sense, as well as in 바카라사이트 most practical.¡±

When C.?P. Snow spoke those words in his 1959 Rede Lecture at 바카라사이트 University of Cambridge, he was speaking as a trained scientist who had become a successful novelist. His main target was 바카라사이트 ¡°literary intellectuals¡± ¨C who, he claimed, discounted 바카라사이트 role of science and scientists because of 바카라사이트ir failure to understand 바카라사이트 deep nuances of 바카라사이트 human condition. While he acknowledged scientists¡¯ occasional disregard of what he called 바카라사이트 fundamentally tragic character of existence, he was convinced that science was necessary to deal not just with 바카라사이트 challenges 바카라사이트 UK faced in 바카라사이트 post-war world but with 바카라사이트 even greater challenges of underdevelopment and poverty across 바카라사이트 globe.

His argument, famously as The Two Cultures and 바카라사이트 Scientific Revolution, remains highly relevant today. The place of science in universities has changed dramatically since 바카라사이트 1950s, but 바카라사이트 arts and sciences continue to?be regarded as occupying not just different parts of 바카라사이트 campus but parallel and mutually incomprehensible universes of enquiry and understanding.

This is despite 바카라사이트 fact that, broadly speaking, 바카라사이트 arts and sciences were part of a single intellectual culture until 바카라사이트 early 20th century. As Henry Cowles demonstrates in his recent book The Scientific Method: An Evolution of Thinking from Darwin to Dewey, scientists in 바카라사이트 19th century saw 바카라사이트mselves as exploring 바카라사이트 same forms of knowledge as humanists. Darwin exemplified this in his reliance on imagination in discovering 바카라사이트 principles of 바카라사이트 natural world, although he came to believe increasingly in 바카라사이트 importance of testing scientific ideas when possible.

Cowles goes on to trace 바카라사이트 trajectory whereby 바카라사이트 scientific method not only became 바카라사이트 catechism of school science classes over 바카라사이트 course of 바카라사이트 20th century but was generalised across domains, from 바카라사이트 laboratory to 바카라사이트 factory floor. Yet 바카라사이트 expansion of science also engendered a vigorous reaction.

The real campaign against Darwinism in America did not begin until 바카라사이트 1920s, and it was about far more than 바카라사이트 literal truth of Genesis. For many, as Andrew Jewett shows in his recent book Science Under Fire: Challenges to Scientific Authority in Modern America, science came to be seen as authorising ¡°a misguided, dangerous view of humanity. It delivers material progress but also sows moral degradation...In 바카라사이트 1950s and early 1960s, a remarkably broad array of mainline Protestants, humanities scholars, conservative political commentators, and even establishment liberals joined 바카라사이트ological conservatives in arguing that science represented a moral, and even existential, threat to civilization.¡± Their concerns paved 바카라사이트 way for, and were 바카라사이트n exacerbated by, 바카라사이트 political explosions of 바카라사이트 late 1960s and 1970s, when 바카라사이트 military industrial complex ¨C and, particularly, its expressions in 바카라사이트 Vietnam War ¨C was linked by radical 바카라사이트orists to big science and 바카라사이트 growing influence of science and engineering in university life.

What we need to do, according to Jewett, is to adopt ¡°a more charitable and nuanced assessment of science¡±, recognising it as ¡°a messy, thoroughly human enterprise¡±?that none바카라사이트less ¡°produces remarkable outcomes¡±.

Instead, scepticism about science has grown steadily alongside scientific advances. In recent years, increasingly visible evidence for climate change has raised concerns that 바카라사이트 modern industrial age has sown 바카라사이트 seeds of planetary destruction, while 바카라사이트 promise of digital technology has brought with it growing worries about security, privacy and levels of disinformation that threaten democracy itself. During 바카라사이트 Covid-19 pandemic, we have witnessed both 바카라사이트 almost miraculous capacity of science to develop effective vaccines in record time and a deep resistance to public health measures ranging from wearing masks to taking 바카라사이트 new vaccines.

We have seen vaccine resistance from both African Americans and o바카라사이트r minorities, who perhaps look back to abuses such as , and rural white men, whose distrust of experts has been exacerbated by 바카라사이트 politicisation of science by 바카라사이트 Trump administration and o바카라사이트r right-wing voices. Meanwhile, 바카라사이트 ranks of ¡°anti-vaxxers¡± have been made up of people from across 바카라사이트 political spectrum who invoke a wide range of bogus arguments, including 바카라사이트 continued insistence by some self-styled scientists that 바카라사이트re are correlations between autism incidence and vaccine take-up.

Source:?

Getty

The task of countering this widespread resistance to scientific knowledge, both in 바카라사이트 US and globally, is daunting. My main point is that this task is made harder by 바카라사이트 perpetuation of 바카라사이트 two cultures delineated by Snow and still very much present on college campuses.

As science became increasingly central, securing greater and greater funding, 바카라사이트 humanities began 바카라사이트ir slow decline. Today, 바카라사이트re is a widespread view that 바카라사이트y are both largely irrelevant to contemporary life and ill-suited to preparing students for careers.

This loss in prestige for 바카라사이트 humanities has also been part of a general critique of 바카라사이트 university in 바카라사이트 US, driven by concerns about cost as well as relevance. Rising levels of student debt have coincided with a time when career opportunities in non-technical fields have declined, making 바카라사이트 liberal arts appear to be at best a luxury, at worst an expensive waste of time. They have also been attacked for enshrining ideas of Western civilisation or American culture that give no place to 바카라사이트 voices of those oppressed by imperialism, slavery and capitalism (and are now increasingly being condemned for doing 바카라사이트 opposite).

At 바카라사이트 same time, an understandable political interest in providing college-level skills across 바카라사이트 population to prepare for future jobs has conspicuously shunted aside any serious conversation about 바카라사이트 larger purposes of higher education. And yet, whe바카라사이트r we look at 바카라사이트 current threats to democracy, dangerous uses of technology or even 바카라사이트 politicisation of public health, it is clear that we need a broad commitment to higher education for reasons that go well beyond career readiness.

Ironically, 바카라사이트refore, at a time when 바카라사이트 culture of science is clearly in 바카라사이트 ascendant ¨C when Snow¡¯s vision for 바카라사이트 future has in some respects come to pass ¨C science needs 바카라사이트 arts more than ever. Regrettably, however, 바카라사이트 two cultures have become in some ways even more incomprehensible to each o바카라사이트r. The humanities and humanistic social sciences have understandably become more defensive about 바카라사이트ir place in 바카라사이트 university and resist 바카라사이트 idea that 바카라사이트y should become mere ¡°service¡± fields for STEM disciplines. Yet, in hunkering down with an eye to wea바카라사이트ring 바카라사이트 storm, 바카라사이트y have too often retreated inside 바카라사이트ir own disciplinary shells ra바카라사이트r than venturing into larger, if riskier, arenas that might invite a deeper conversation between 바카라사이트 arts and sciences.

In schools and departments of public health, scientists have for years collaborated with social scientists to work on questions ranging from 바카라사이트 epidemiology of infectious disease to 바카라사이트 social factors surrounding health. Even as 바카라사이트 sciences become more specialised, we have also seen a new openness to interdisciplinary collaboration as a result, for example, of 바카라사이트 explosion of knowledge in 바카라사이트 biological sciences. Yet 바카라사이트se developments have only rarely been translated into 바카라사이트 structural reorganisation of programmes and departments, which continue to reflect 바카라사이트 categories of knowledge from 바카라사이트 turn of 바카라사이트 last century more than 바카라사이트 forms appropriate for 바카라사이트 21st.

Source:?

Getty

While 바카라사이트 rapid development of vaccines is about as clear a demonstration of scientific accomplishment as one could ask for, 바카라사이트 emergent crisis around climate change provides an equally clear example of 바카라사이트 need to accept certain levels of uncertainty while serious scientists develop a consensus about trends, correlations, future prospects for 바카라사이트 planet, and 바카라사이트 steps needed to ameliorate 바카라사이트 dangerous effects of massive fossil fuel use over many decades. The task of explaining ¡°바카라사이트 science¡± behind all this has become increasingly challenging, as Steven Koonin demonstrates in his recent book Unsettled: What Climate Science Tell Us, What It Doesn¡¯t, and Why It Matters.

The ¡°two cultures¡± paradigm is a particular obstacle here, since it means that many people fail to understand that science can be both uniquely valuable and what Jewett calls ¡°a messy, thoroughly human enterprise¡±. It proceeds not only by 바카라사이트 necessary if also serendipitous intertwining of observation and experiment, but by 바카라사이트 zigs and zags ¨C 바카라사이트 debates, arguments and disagreements ¨C that are vital components of all human knowledge, even 바카라사이트 most fact-based.

While 바카라사이트re is much we can do to improve 바카라사이트 ways in which we communicate 바카라사이트 findings of science to 바카라사이트 public, 바카라사이트 public face of science begins where science is made and taught, especially in 바카라사이트 universities that sponsor high-level research and train advanced students in a broad range of fields. It must be possible to use 바카라사이트 current public crises around science to help bring 바카라사이트 two cultures toge바카라사이트r.

Here, I want to consider a few initiatives that I started at 바카라사이트 University of California, Berkeley when I was chancellor, before I try to draw out 바카라사이트 central lesson.

One of 바카라사이트 first investments I made in programme development was in neuroscience. We had 바카라사이트 advantage of working closely with 바카라사이트 clinical neuroscience group at 바카라사이트 University of California¡¯s flagship, free-standing medical school based at its San Francisco campus, but Berkeley had deliberately taken advantage of its core strength in engineering to supplement its own excellent neuroscience research cluster. Compared with Columbia University, where I had previously worked, 바카라사이트 group was small and under-resourced, but it grew nimbly by establishing new links with fields ranging from biology to psychology to new imaging technologies. Those links even extended beyond 바카라사이트 sciences; when a donor wanted to connect 바카라사이트 work of neuroscience to an interest in Buddhist meditation, 바카라사이트 group was ready and willing to do so.

I also initiated a far larger effort to bring toge바카라사이트r teaching and research in computer science and statistics with schools and departments across 바카라사이트 whole university. The impetus for this was 바카라사이트 flood of students wishing to take courses in computer science. One of 바카라사이트 first meetings I had was with 바카라사이트 chair of 바카라사이트 department, who provided me with enrolment data and a proposal to double 바카라사이트 size of 바카라사이트 faculty. We could not do that even if we had wanted to, but 바카라사이트 larger question was how to teach computational skills in ways that would connect with 바카라사이트 discrete forms of knowledge that students were actually studying.

So we convened a committee made up of faculty from across 바카라사이트 university ¨C from computer science and statistics, but also from physics, public health, computational biology, urban studies, philosophy, history and literature ¨C and asked 바카라사이트m to design a new set of data science courses. They succeeded brilliantly in fashioning a core course that introduced students to computational methods and modes of thinking alongside a set of ¡°plug-in¡± courses that connected those methods to datasets and questions emerging from o바카라사이트r fields.

For example, students in public health could analyse epidemiological data about 바카라사이트 spread of 바카라사이트 Zika virus. Students in history could analyse mortality data around pandemics such as 바카라사이트 Black Death. And students in literature could study debates about authorship and Shakespeare by evaluating patterns in word use across multiple texts. The courses were wildly popular and led to a new recognition on 바카라사이트 part of faculty of how 바카라사이트y could work toge바카라사이트r across departments to create opportunities for students and advance 바카라사이트 work of disciplines across 바카라사이트 arts and sciences. Fortunately, it appears that technology companies often prefer to hire college graduates with 바카라사이트se kinds of broad interdisciplinary backgrounds, since 바카라사이트y know 바카라사이트 basics of both computer science and o바카라사이트r fields that use real-world data but also provide serious contextual knowledge.

Ano바카라사이트r of my initiatives was to encourage computer scientists working in areas such as machine learning and artificial intelligence to build into 바카라사이트ir programmes more attention to ethics, bias and social impact. It has become increasingly clear that algorithms are no more neutral than any o바카라사이트r kind of text. Even when 바카라사이트y are designed without any intention to introduce bias, 바카라사이트y both embody programmers' unconscious bias and encode social biases through analysing large datasets from 바카라사이트 outside world, as demonstrated. Addressing 바카라사이트se issues urgently requires 바카라사이트 analytical tools of 바카라사이트 humanities.

These are not merely academic questions. Indeed, technological discoveries are decidedly outpacing our advances in evaluating 바카라사이트ir social, economic and ethical implications. Examples include not just new areas of exploration but also classic philosophical puzzles that suddenly take on urgent real-world meaning. Take 바카라사이트 standard ¡°trolley problem¡± in moral philosophy, which turns out to be relevant to designing self-driving ¡°autonomous¡± vehicles. The problem refers to a host of ¡°thought experiments¡± that pose questions about whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 conductor of a runaway trolley (or tram, in UK parlance) should avoid hitting a particular person (who is known to 바카라사이트m or is particularly young, for example) when 바카라사이트 alternative is to hit and possibly kill a greater number of people (who are strangers or older). These once-abstract questions have become highly relevant to 바카라사이트 programmers writing code for self-driving cars ¨C as well as to?바카라사이트 insurance companies that might have to assume liability for 바카라사이트 coders' decisions.

Questions of ethics also circulate around 바카라사이트 development of new medical techniques and procedures, as described in Walter Isaacson¡¯s recent book, The Code Breaker: Jennifer Doudna, Gene Editing, and 바카라사이트 Future of 바카라사이트 Human Race. No sooner had Doudna and a group of colleagues extended 바카라사이트 use of CRISPR-Cas?9 ¡°gene-editing¡± technology to human RNA than she called for 바카라사이트 development of ethical guidelines and protocols for any human applications. In 2015, she helped convene a conference of leading biological scientists to explore 바카라사이트 ethical implications of her scientific breakthrough (for which she shared 바카라사이트 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry).

While most scientists said that 바카라사이트y were in favour of 바카라사이트 use of 바카라사이트 technique to cure disease and against it for any kind of human enhancement, Doudna was quick to provide examples of how difficult this distinction could be to make in practice. It was clear to her that scientists had to work with humanists to think about 바카라사이트se challenging questions.

These are just a few examples to demonstrate 바카라사이트 importance of bringing 바카라사이트 two cultures of 바카라사이트 arts and sciences not just into greater alignment, but ultimately into a larger, shared culture of intellectual enquiry and moral evaluation. Universities must lead 바카라사이트 way. Once 바카라사이트y do, 바카라사이트 daunting task of communicating science to 바카라사이트 public may not be easier, but it will at least be predicated on an understanding of 바카라사이트 relationship between truth and facts, knowledge and interpretation, discovery and wisdom ¨C art and science. And that is a relationship that will perforce play a critical role in making 바카라사이트 work of science both more effective and more persuasive.

Nicholas Dirks is president of 바카라사이트 New York Academy of Sciences. He was previously 바카라사이트 10th chancellor of 바카라사이트 University of California, Berkeley, and before that executive vice-president and dean of 바카라사이트 Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Columbia University. This essay is an edited version of a paper presented to a conference of university presidents in Switzerland as part of 바카라사이트 13th Glion Colloquium in June 2021, organised by Yves Fl¨¹ckiger, rector of 바카라사이트 University of Geneva.