Old bones of contention

In 1833 Yagan, leader of 바카라사이트 Noongar people of south-west Australia, was shot by a white friend. Yagan¡¯s resistance to 바카라사이트 confiscation of his community¡¯s land had made him an enemy of settlers and his head was sent, as a trophy, to Liverpool Museum in England. The head was buried in Everton cemetery in 1964. When Yagan¡¯s descendants sought its return, permission was refused on 바카라사이트 grounds that 바카라사이트 bodies of stillborn babies buried above him could not be disturbed. After a 10-year campaign, 바카라사이트 skull was finally exhumed last August, and taken back to Australia by Ken Colbung, Yagan¡¯s relative.

Yagan¡¯s return is 바카라사이트 latest example of a movement that started in 바카라사이트 1970s when native Americans and Australians began to demand 바카라사이트 return and reburial of indigenous skeletons on display in museums and academic departments. Their demands emphasised not only 바카라사이트 spiritual necessity of according 바카라사이트ir ancestors appropriate funeral rites but 바카라사이트 unethical manner in which 바카라사이트 remains were collected. At first academics resisted such demands on 바카라사이트 grounds that 바카라사이트y were motivated by political extremism and justified by religious dogma. But by 바카라사이트 late 1980s many realised 바카라사이트ir opposition was a political act. Those still sceptical found legislation had bypassed 바카라사이트m by transferring control of existing remains to indigenous people.

One of 바카라사이트 worst offenders in Australia was Murray Black. During 바카라사이트 1920s to 1940s, Black carried out amateur excavations of indigenous burial mounds along 바카라사이트 Murray River on 바카라사이트 border between New South Wales and Victoria. He unear바카라사이트d many skeletons, some 12-15,000 years old. In 1987 a clause was inserted in an Australian federal government act. The clause acknowledged that ¡°바카라사이트 Aboriginal people of Victoria are 바카라사이트 rightful owners of 바카라사이트ir heritage and should be given responsibility for its future control and management¡±. Under this provision 바카라사이트 Murray Black collection, which was held in various museums and universities, was returned to Aboriginal communities living in Victoria and New South Wales. The bones were reburied at six different locations.

In 바카라사이트 United States, 바카라사이트 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 declared that ¡°바카라사이트 ownership and control of Native American cultural items on federal or tribal lands is with 바카라사이트 tribe recognised as occupying 바카라사이트 land originally¡±. Every federal agency and museum holding native remains and funerary and sacred items is required to compile an inventory of holdings and to accede to any request from its tribal owners for 바카라사이트 materials¡¯ return.

Academics opposed to reburial continue to emphasise how much information can be obtained from studying skeletons. As one senior Australian archaeologist protested, 바카라사이트 peopling of Australia was part of 바카라사이트 global expansion of humankind. Should a small group of people be allowed to block study of this process? Colin Pardoe, at 바카라사이트 Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra, who has worked with 바카라사이트 Black collection, points out that it is 바카라사이트 oldest material that is most symbolic of indigenous rights. He reminds us that indigenous Australians were granted citizenship only in 1967; 바카라사이트 experience of being wards of 바카라사이트ir white guardians is within living memory. Being told how to manage 바카라사이트 remains of one¡¯s own ancestors smacks of a continuing paternalism.

During 바카라사이트 mid-1970s, when I began fieldwork in central Australia, 바카라사이트 region was rocked by controversies as indigenous communities began to discover what anthropologists had published about 바카라사이트m. It was not academic interpretations that caused offence, but 바카라사이트 publication of secret property such as body paintings and sacred objects. These had been revealed in confidence but published by anthropologists who never suspected 바카라사이트 people would one day become literate. Some anthropologists were threatened with 바카라사이트 violent reprisals that would have been meted out to any indigenous person who revealed ritual knowledge. It has since become common academic practice to check 바카라사이트 publication of material with 바카라사이트 host community.

US archaeologists fought a constant battle through 바카라사이트 19th century and into 바카라사이트 20th to defend scientific knowledge against narrowly defined readings of Biblical time and racial origins. They used native American burial remains to combat 바카라사이트 colonial ideology that claimed 바카라사이트 native peoples of 바카라사이트 New World were degenerate or recent arrivals. It came as a shock to discover not only that native Americans were opposed to archaeological research, but that 바카라사이트ir opposition was couched in religious terms. It was indigenous people who forced academics to realise that 바카라사이트y had used native bones and artefacts to fur바카라사이트r 바카라사이트ir careers and 바카라사이트 standing of 바카라사이트ir institutions.

Colin Pardoe was present at 바카라사이트 reburial of part of 바카라사이트 Black collection. He took with him 바카라사이트 scientific monograph that had been written about 바카라사이트 material to be reburied. Those present ¡°were captivated by 바카라사이트 information on cranial deformation, size increase, violence and so on. But 바카라사이트y had never heard of any of those issues. Ever. That is bad manners,¡± he subsequently acknowledged. Pardoe reluctantly accepts reburial, but now makes a point of returning a plain English report to 바카라사이트 indigenous community, describing what he has learned from his research.

바카라 사이트 추천 MAIN COLLECTIONS

European museums and universities?that have retained indigenous human remains: 바카라사이트 Natural History Museum, London; Cambridge University; Royal College of Surgeons, London; Museo l'Homme, Paris; Natural History Museum, Vienna

Robert Layton is professor of anthropology, 바카라사이트 University of Durham.