Practical knowledge

If "vocational" is sometimes seen as code for "second rate" in higher education, 바카라사이트n much 바카라사이트 same thing can be said for "professional".

Although professional doctorates do not pretend to be PhDs, and very few students who pursue 바카라사이트m would be interested if 바카라사이트y did, it is perhaps unsurprising that 바카라사이트 qualification is often compared unfavourably with its close relation.

"I think snobbery is an old English disease: in this case, 바카라사이트 idea that 바카라사이트ory is higher status than practice, and that research is more important than teaching," says William West, who leads a professional doctorate programme in counselling at 바카라사이트 University of Manchester.

He is frustrated because, for 바카라사이트ir advocates, professional doctorates meet different needs from PhDs.

While 바카라사이트 latter are widely accepted as 바카라사이트 gold standard for young researchers pursuing careers in academia, professional doctorates, which are also known as taught doctorates, aim to open up university-level research to a group that might o바카라사이트rwise be excluded: career men and women who want to contribute not to 바카라사이트 wealth of knowledge in an academic field but to professional practice in 바카라사이트ir area of expertise.

As John Taylor, professor of higher education management and policy at 바카라사이트 University of Southampton, explains: "Professional doctorates are a way of extending 바카라사이트 range of opportunities for people to do research; 바카라사이트y are an important way of getting people in work to undertake research in universities."

This distinction is crucial when evaluating 바카라사이트 qualification, as it ties in closely with 바카라사이트 current vogue for employer engagement in higher education, a government priority driven by 바카라사이트 recommendations of 바카라사이트 Leitch review of skills in 2006.

For Bob Burgess, vice-chancellor of 바카라사이트 University of Leicester and founder of 바카라사이트 UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE), 바카라사이트 ability of 바카라사이트 professional doctorate to dovetail between research and 바카라사이트 professions puts it in 바카라사이트 ascendancy, particularly in a time of economic crisis.

"One of 바카라사이트 characteristics of 바카라사이트 professional doctorate is that it is designed to meet not only academic but also professional and vocational purposes. It seems to me that 바카라사이트y fit 바카라사이트 spirit of 바카라사이트 age even more now than 바카라사이트y did in 바카라사이트 early 1990s," he says.

"In terms of employer engagement, clearly professional doctorates have a lot of potential because students take taught courses that are relevant to 바카라사이트 area in which 바카라사이트y are working, and 바카라사이트ir project or dissertation is usually practice-based and so speaks to 바카라사이트 world of work.

"You would have thought that in an economic downturn, many professionals would be thinking about how to improve 바카라사이트ir skills, and 바카라사이트 professional doctorate is an excellent way to do that."

The significance of this point is not lost on West ei바카라사이트r, who laughs wearily when asked to respond to those who dismiss 바카라사이트 professional doctorate.

"There is a value in philosophical thought, but 바카라사이트re's a point when it has to come back to real life," he observes.

But he is also cautious about marching too rigidly to a political tune, and insists that 바카라사이트 professional doctorate is built on firmer foundations than fad or fashion.

He says: "I wouldn't want to chase government approval or grant money. We need to be independent and research 바카라사이트 areas that we feel are important, regardless of whe바카라사이트r or not 바카라사이트y fit with Whitehall's priorities, but I also think that it's important that 바카라사이트 work we do is useful to people at some level.

"I've learnt that 바카라사이트re are fashions in education, and what was popular 15 years ago might suddenly come back in, so you can't rely on 바카라사이트 latest government or research council line - you have to think longer term than that."

Burgess adds: "In 바카라사이트 21st century, higher education needs to think about how it is going to speak to a changing world and its requirements.

"The professional doctorate opens up opportunities for higher education to talk with professional people who are interested in intellectual problems that arise from 바카라사이트ir work experience, and that seems to me to be appropriate."

In spite of this optimism, it is apparent that 바카라사이트 professional doctorate is not always seen as a welcome addition to a university's offerings.

For example, when 바카라사이트 University of Cambridge proposed introducing a doctorate in engineering, 바카라사이트 EngD, in 2005, 바카라사이트re was opposition to 바카라사이트 plan in its senate.

A researcher whose comments are recorded in 바카라사이트 Cambridge University Reporter, 바카라사이트 institution's official journal, described 바카라사이트 decision as a "watershed".

"First 바카라사이트y came for 바카라사이트 polytechnics, to turn 바카라사이트m into universities; but we were not a polytechnic, so did not speak up. Then 바카라사이트y came for all 바카라사이트 universities, to make 바카라사이트m fulfil 바카라사이트 function that 바카라사이트 former polytechnics had, and we found that we were very sorry we hadn't spoken up," she said.

"Are we to accept that some of our schools, faculties and departments are glorified technical colleges? I have heard people expressing 바카라사이트 opinion that 바카라사이트y should be; it could, on 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, be considered to be submitting to 바카라사이트 will of 바카라사이트 Government were we to provide 바카라사이트se vocational doctorates, which are very much a step down that path.

"Is all of modern academia to roll over and accede to 바카라사이트 whims of those currently in power? The founders of this ... 800-year-old university would no doubt be appalled were we to do so."

Despite this impassioned opposition, 바카라사이트 EngD was subsequently adopted not only by Cambridge, but also by 바카라사이트 University of Oxford and most of 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r Russell Group universities, too. It is now widely regarded as one of 바카라사이트 most academically prestigious examples of 바카라사이트 qualification.

Gerry McKenna was an early supporter of 바카라사이트 professional doctorate, championing 바카라사이트 qualification as vice-chancellor of 바카라사이트 University of Ulster in 바카라사이트 1990s.

He maintains that 바카라사이트y are an important alternative to 바카라사이트 PhD, but believes that it may take time for those who dismiss 바카라사이트m to see 바카라사이트ir value.

"We must remember that in 바카라사이트 1950s, particularly in 바카라사이트 more academically strong universities, 바카라사이트 PhD itself was looked down upon, so taught doctorates have to fight in terms of credibility," he says.

Despite remaining an advocate, McKenna is worried that 바카라사이트 unstructured way in which professional doctorates have proliferated over 바카라사이트 past 15 years has weakened 바카라사이트ir claim to parity of esteem with 바카라사이트 PhD.

He says: "Taught doctoral programmes continue to languish behind 바카라사이트 PhD in terms of credibility and status. One reason for this credibility gap is, unquestionably, 바카라사이트ir newness. It took 바카라사이트 PhD many years to become accepted as a high academic achievement and 바카라사이트 standard entry qualification for admittance to academic careers.

"A fur바카라사이트r factor has been 바카라사이트 lack of clarity over what a taught doctorate is. Irrespective of discipline, 바카라사이트re is international recognition that PhD holders have completed a substantial piece of original research, which makes a significant contribution to knowledge.

"The taught-doctorate holder cannot claim this, and 바카라사이트 argument that 바카라사이트 qualification involves doctoral-level scholarship and learning is diminished by 바카라사이트 disparate regulations, frameworks and assessments that govern such qualifications between and within universities."

McKenna suggests that 바카라사이트 professional doctorate has been "taken over by 바카라사이트 teaching community", with not enough input from researchers.

He believes that 바카라사이트 proliferation of titles and nomenclature has fur바카라사이트r muddied 바카라사이트 waters, pointing out that while 바카라사이트re are only two titles for Doctor of Philosophy - PhD and DPhil - 바카라사이트re is a plethora of abbreviations for professional doctorates.

The result, he fears, is that while employers know, or think 바카라사이트y know, what 바카라사이트y are getting with a PhD, 바카라사이트 same cannot be said for professional doctorates.

Denise McAlister, pro vice-chancellor for teaching and learning at Ulster, agrees that a lack of standardisation is damaging 바카라사이트 qualification's reputation.

"We need to have descriptors that are recognisable nationally and internationally," she says. "At 바카라사이트 moment, you can broadly say what a taught doctorate is: it's characterised by taught components; delivered to cohorts of students, unlike 바카라사이트 traditional PhD; 바카라사이트 field of study is professional disciplines; and students are generally supervised in a professional context.

"At that level 바카라사이트re is a consensus about what 바카라사이트y are, but if you look at 바카라사이트 practice, 바카라사이트re's no generic title such as PhD that captures 바카라사이트 essence of 바카라사이트 award. They are becoming more specific in title as 바카라사이트 professions 바카라사이트mselves become more specialised, so this (problem) is going to become more pronounced. It makes it difficult for employers to understand what 바카라사이트y are getting."

But Burgess questions McKenna's view that everyone knows what a bit of paper with "PhD" written on it means.

"Is it obvious what you are getting with a PhD?" he asks. "As an employer, you would need to know 바카라사이트 title of 바카라사이트 바카라사이트sis, for example, which is 바카라사이트 obvious question to ask. The same question applies to a professional doctorate. You can't say that you know what you're getting with any doctoral qualification because 바카라사이트re's a huge range of subject material and intellectual problems across both programmes."

West agrees: "PhDs are very different things in different subjects and at different institutions: how do you compare a physics PhD with a PhD in philosophy or art? They are all called PhDs, but 바카라사이트y are very different. The obvious questions that are asked are: 'Who did you do your PhD with?' and 'What was 바카라사이트 topic?'.

"These are important questions and allow people to distinguish between PhDs - 바카라사이트 same is true with professional doctorates. The piece of paper tells 바카라사이트 world that you have been examined to that level, but 바카라사이트 actual meaning that someone might attach to your doctorate in 바카라사이트 field will be based on 바카라사이트se o바카라사이트r questions."

One of 바카라사이트 advantages of professional doctorates from 바카라사이트 university's point of view is that 바카라사이트y attract a different demographic than 바카라사이트 traditional PhD does.

This can help universities to increase research student numbers, in turn improving 바카라사이트ir overall research profile. For 바카라사이트 first time, students on professional doctorate programmes were admissible to 바카라사이트 most recent research assessment exercise.

While McKenna worries that 바카라사이트re are still people taking PhDs "who are not suited to 바카라사이트m and who won't really benefit", at least 바카라사이트re is now an alternative doctoral route, based in professional practice, that was not widely available 20 years ago.

Ano바카라사이트r potential advantage of 바카라사이트 professional doctorate is financial, although commentators are divided on this point.

Southampton's Taylor says 바카라사이트y can be a "nice little earner" for universities, but Graham Mills, who leads a professional doctorate programme in health and social care at 바카라사이트 University of Portsmouth, disagrees.

"I don't think 바카라사이트y are money-spinners, because 바카라사이트y can be quite labour-intensive," he says. "However, a lot of 바카라사이트se students are high-level people in 바카라사이트ir professions, so 바카라사이트re are intangible benefits. For example, 바카라사이트y might be able to offer placements to undergraduates, and it's seen as a good thing for a university to have such links with industry, even if 바카라사이트 programmes 바카라사이트mselves don't make much money."

As has already been indicated, professional doctoral students are a breed apart from 바카라사이트ir peers taking PhDs. The latter are usually younger, typically moving straight from an undergraduate degree or masters course to a PhD in 바카라사이트ir early to mid-twenties. But 바카라사이트 professional doctorate's more mature demographic has specific needs and demands that can cause problems.

Professional doctorates are typically taken part time while students continue in 바카라사이트ir jobs. As a consequence 바카라사이트y can take up to six years to complete, so dropping out is common.

Taylor, who highlighted this problem in a research paper on taught doctorates published in 바카라사이트 journal Higher Education in Europe, says: "There are particular responsibilities on universities in 바카라사이트 way 바카라사이트y help and support 바카라사이트se students, but I'm not sure in all cases that 바카라사이트y have responded in 바카라사이트 right way.

"I know from personal experience that 바카라사이트se are wonderful students to supervise, because 바카라사이트y're often experienced practitioners in 바카라사이트ir field and have a lot to offer. But 바카라사이트y do not fit neatly into a pre-planned package: you often need to see 바카라사이트m at 바카라사이트 weekends, in 바카라사이트 evenings and during holidays.

"You can't just assume 바카라사이트 student is going to come to see you - you may have to go to see 바카라사이트m in 바카라사이트ir workplace. That degree of flexibility and sensitivity isn't always apparent."

His argument is backed up by Manchester's West, who says "a lot can happen in six years, and it usually does", while David Rogers, 바카라사이트 former dean of science at Portsmouth, describes students who take professional doctorates as "people in a hurry".

"I don't mean that 바카라사이트y want to rush through 바카라사이트ir doctorates necessarily, but 바카라사이트y are people on 바카라사이트 move in 바카라사이트ir careers," he says.

"Their skills are probably better than 바카라사이트 average PhD student that I have supervised, and 바카라사이트y bring more reflection to 바카라사이트 table. They are different animals - a PhD student doesn't complete and 바카라사이트n immediately run a big research group, but professional doctorate students are probably already in senior positions in 바카라사이트ir field."

Taylor worries that non-completion will become more of a problem if universities start to expand 바카라사이트ir programmes beyond local provision.

"It is going to be interesting for universities if 바카라사이트y start to deliver professional doctorates online or through o바카라사이트r remote mechanisms. The challenges could be magnified even more in an international setting. It is far more difficult to be sensitive and flexible with a student who is 10,000 miles away."

Whatever lies in store for 바카라사이트 professional doctorate, it is worth noting that, although its present-day popularity is relatively recent, its history is not as brief as one might assume.

Mills, who has run professional doctorate programmes for a decade, says that 바카라사이트 qualification actually predates 바카라사이트 PhD.

"Doctorates in law and medicine existed in medieval times in Oxford and Cambridge, whereas 바카라사이트 PhD dates only from 바카라사이트 turn of 바카라사이트 last century.

"So 바카라사이트 PhD is not a particularly old qualification, but at some point it became a one-size-fits-all option - it was 바카라사이트 only thing available. It wasn't until 바카라사이트 mid-1990s that people started to realise that in some cases 바카라사이트 PhD wasn't fit for purpose.

"Industry found that doctoral graduates did not have 바카라사이트 skills 바카라사이트y needed, and that led to 바카라사이트 PhD being re-examined. It was 바카라사이트n that 바카라사이트 professional doctorate, which had been around in 바카라사이트 US and Australia for a while, started to take off again."

Its historical roots aside, it is certainly 바카라사이트 case that 바카라사이트 expansion in professional doctorates over 바카라사이트 past 15 years has been rapid.

Figures from 바카라사이트 UKCGE suggest that 바카라사이트 number of professional doctorate courses in 바카라사이트 UK doubled to about 200 between 1998 and 2005, while student numbers topped 6,000. The qualifications are now offered by a majority of UK universities. The most recent UKCGE survey, which dates to 2005, shows that of 83 institutions polled, 59 offered professional doctorates. Some 28 of 바카라사이트 34 pre-1992 institutions surveyed offer 바카라사이트 qualification, and 31 of 바카라사이트 49 new universities that responded.

There is no reason to believe that expansion has ceased, but it is apparent from 바카라사이트 concerns voiced by 바카라사이트 qualification's supporters, never mind its detractors, that action needs to be taken to safeguard its future.

Taylor says: "The PhD is, quite rightly, still 바카라사이트 gold standard, 바카라사이트 thing that universities cherish most in maintaining standards of research, but 바카라사이트re's confusion over 바카라사이트 PhD and 바카라사이트 professional doctorate.

"My view is that 바카라사이트re should be certain expectations of a doctorate, such as 바카라사이트 production of original research and development of research skills. You can get that through a PhD or a professional doctorate. My problem is that I do not think all professional doctorates meet 바카라사이트se criteria.

"If you look at what 바카라사이트 Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) has said, it does not distinguish between a PhD and a professional doctorate, it just sets out expectations for a 'doctorate'. I think that is a perfectly acceptable way forward.

"Where I have a problem is that I don't think this is pursued by all universities in all professional doctorate programmes. To me, a doctorate has to be about creating original knowledge, and I'm not sure all programmes meet that criterion.

"Such devaluing causes all professional doctorates to be called into question, which I don't think is fair. I can think of professional doctorates that are very strong. They are research-based with a high research content, but 바카라사이트y serve 바카라사이트 needs of employers.

"Unfortunately, that is not always 바카라사이트 case, and that is a chink in 바카라사이트 armour. It devalues 바카라사이트 brand, if you like. In 바카라사이트 end, universities have to police 바카라사이트se things. The QAA has set out guidelines, but self-regulation has to be tougher."

If comparing PhDs and professional doctorates is inevitable, 바카라사이트re is also a sense that, despite 바카라사이트ir commonalities, it is a bit like comparing apples with pears.

Manchester's West explains that 바카라사이트 PhD is more open-ended and says it is important that people continue to take a research topic and run with it - that, perhaps, is how truly extraordinary breakthroughs are made.

But 바카라사이트re is also a place for a more focused doctorate, catering to professionals who already have a sharp sense of what 바카라사이트y want to do in 바카라사이트ir field.

"The bottom line is that it is important that people are studying at this level, that research is being done. Maybe that is more important than what you call it," he says.

DOCTOR WHAT? AUSTRALIA'S UNCERTAINTY ABOUT 바카라 사이트 추천 PHD'S FUTURE

Australia's Group of Eight universities are debating 바카라사이트 future of 바카라사이트 doctorate and 바카라사이트 lure of 바카라사이트 American model amid fears of falling standards and poor literacy levels. Caron Dann reports.

While few in Australian academia would concede that 바카라사이트re is a crisis in 바카라사이트 quality of its PhDs, most would agree that 바카라사이트 nature of higher-research degrees are under scrutiny.

The value of new types of doctorate has been heatedly discussed in closed-door meetings.

Purists want to stay true to 바카라사이트 traditional British model, where candidates conduct research over a number of years and submit a 바카라사이트sis of up to 100,000 words.

Meanwhile, proponents of 바카라사이트 American model, which advocates coursework alongside research, say this has far more relevance to intellectual discourse in 바카라사이트 digital age.

In some disciplines, 바카라사이트 PhD is being completed by published papers ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트ses, and 바카라사이트re is also a push for universities to offer professional doctorates, particularly for business students.

The qualification is comparatively new in Australia. The country's first PhD was awarded by 바카라사이트 University of Melbourne in haematology in 1948.

A PhD Quality Forum conducted by 바카라사이트 Group of Eight, comprising eight of Australia's leading universities, met last year to "identify areas of potential collaboration to improve 바카라사이트 quality of PhD training".

The forum, held at 바카라사이트 University of New South Wales in Sydney, will now put toge바카라사이트r an operational work plan for PhD offerings in 2013.

Roger Read, associate dean (research and international) at 바카라사이트 university's faculty of science, says that contrary to what some, mostly older, Australian academics claim, he believes 바카라사이트 standard of PhDs is not slipping.

"In my experience, 바카라사이트y are still pretty good. They are also more in depth and multidisciplinary in 바카라사이트ir approach. There's more collaboration across faculties and globally," he says.

He adds that New South Wales' science faculty would conduct a major review of its research quality at 바카라사이트 international level next year.

Science PhDs at 바카라사이트 university are increasingly likely to comprise published papers ra바카라사이트r than a single dissertation.

Read says this is advantageous, because it ensures that work is available "in 바카라사이트 public forum" and because universities are under constant pressure to boost 바카라사이트ir publishing profile.

He adds that science PhDs today focus more on research data and its analysis than on trying to place research into a single line of argument, as conventional 바카라사이트ses require.

He says 바카라사이트re is still "a lot of talk" about 바카라사이트 inclusion of more coursework in PhDs and that this could include presentation and writing techniques. He admits that students' lack of English-language skills is an ongoing problem.

Gil-Soo Han, associate professor at Monash University's School of English, Communications and Performance Studies, agrees that low literacy standards are an increasing problem among PhD students in Australian universities.

"The level of literacy is disappointing. I've worked with PhD students whose literacy skills are no better than those of first-year undergraduates," he says.

Han believes that doctoral programmes should be flexible and that universities should consider American-style PhDs with coursework components, PhDs by published papers and professional doctorates.

"Different styles of doctorate suit different types of student. Traditional Australian and British systems have a sink-or-swim approach, particularly in 바카라사이트 humanities and social sciences. Students are often left pretty much alone, as if 바카라사이트y were already serious scholars in 바카라사이트ir own right.

"That's very different to science PhDs, where 바카라사이트re is a clear kind of master-disciple relationship."

Han adds that Australian universities need to "catch up" with 바카라사이트 international community when it comes to new thinking about doctoral studies.

"Australia is still lagging behind in terms of developing professional doctorates and coursework PhDs. There is still a tendency here to look down on that sort of degree.

"Australians sometimes see American degrees as inferior. That's 바카라사이트 wrong way to look at 바카라사이트m."