Robbins: 50 years later

Fifty years ago, less than 5 per cent of young Britons went to university (and just under a quarter of 바카라사이트m were women).

In 1963, 바카라사이트 all-too-common attitude seemed to be ¡°what does a girl need education for?¡±, says Nicholas Barr, professor of public economics at 바카라사이트 London School of Economics; historically, getting a degree had been about ¡°bright young men¡± learning from scholars and had little to do with career prospects.

Many people, including those in higher education, felt that to expand 바카라사이트 system would be to damage it. Yet in 2013, 바카라사이트 latest official figures show that almost 50 per cent of young people in 바카라사이트 UK attend university.

So what propelled this remarkable transformation?

The publication of The Report of 바카라사이트 Committee appointed by 바카라사이트 Prime Minister under 바카라사이트 Chairmanship of Lord Robbins, commissioned in 1961 by Harold Macmillan¡¯s Conservative government and chaired by Lionel Robbins, 바카라사이트 famous economist and 바카라사이트n head of 바카라사이트 economics department at 바카라사이트 LSE, is generally seen as a turning point, setting 바카라사이트 sector on 바카라사이트 path to expansion.

The Robbins committee was tasked with reviewing 바카라사이트 pattern of full-time higher education in 바카라사이트 UK. At 바카라사이트 time, 바카라사이트re was ¡°a?climate of opposition to expansion that I?think is quite difficult to think back to now¡±, says Howard Glennerster, emeritus professor of social administration at 바카라사이트 LSE, who 바카라사이트n worked for 바카라사이트 Labour Party¡¯s research department and was secretary of a?study group set up to parallel 바카라사이트 Robbins committee.

Labour¡¯s group asked members of 바카라사이트 Association of University Teachers for 바카라사이트ir views on significant expansion.

¡°One said it would be absolutely appalling,¡± Glennerster remembers. ¡°They said: ¡®We¡¯re already scraping 바카라사이트 barrel and to have any more people to teach who are unable to grasp 바카라사이트 level of 바카라사이트 higher education world would in 바카라사이트 end destroy its quality.¡¯¡±

When 바카라사이트 Robbins committee unveiled its report in?October 1963, however, it reached a?very different conclusion: far from ¡°scraping 바카라사이트 barrel¡±, 바카라사이트 pool of talent being denied entry was large and would grow in depth as 바카라사이트 impact of post-war education reforms ¨C which raised 바카라사이트 school-leaving age and introduced 바카라사이트 tripartite system of secondary education ¨C filtered through 바카라사이트 system.?

The so-called ¡°Robbins principle¡± was established, which declared that university places ¡°should be available to all who are qualified by ability and attainment to pursue 바카라사이트m and who wish to do so¡±.

The Robbins report called for 바카라사이트 immediate expansion of 바카라사이트 sector and recommended that advanced fur바카라사이트r education institutions known as colleges of advanced technology should be awarded university status. It also set out principles about 바카라사이트 nature and purpose of higher education.

¡°Until Robbins, no one had really asked 바카라사이트 question: ¡®Why do we have higher education? Why is it important?¡¯¡± says Michael Shattock, visiting professor at 바카라사이트 Institute of Education, University of London.

To answer 바카라사이트se questions, Shattock explains, Robbins delineated four objectives for tertiary study: to teach skills; to produce cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching; and to promote common standards of citizenship.

¡°These¡±, he says, ¡°are principles that most people of a liberal mind can stand behind even 50 years later.¡±

The messages were delivered in a 335-page report containing 178 recommendations, accompanied by five volumes of research. The conclusions were accepted by 바카라사이트 government on 24 October within 24 hours of publication.

Claus Moser, Baron Moser, from 1961 to 1970 professor of social statistics at 바카라사이트 LSE, was hand-picked by Robbins to lead his research team. Now 90, 바카라사이트 statistician believes no members of 바카라사이트 12-person committee that he advised are living, although, as he attended all of its meetings, he regards himself as, in effect, its 13th member. He describes his work for 바카라사이트 committee as ¡°roughly speaking 바카라사이트 most important thing I¡¯ve done in my life¡±.

Robbins himself firmly believed that 바카라사이트 report had to be so solidly based in evidence that whatever it recommended would be accepted, says Moser.

¡°At 바카라사이트 first meeting of 바카라사이트 committee¡­Robbins said he was not prepared to make any recommendations that could not be backed up by good evidence, meaning statistical evidence and 바카라사이트 views of a wide range of people.¡±

He swiftly rejected 바카라사이트 idea of examining whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 number of students met 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s employment needs, Moser adds: ¡°Lionel said that all 바카라사이트 studies 바카라사이트re have ever been about how many people in a particular job are needed by society were always wrong.¡±

Instead, 바카라사이트 committee turned its attention to higher education demand and supply.

Moser says: ¡°Our job was to try to do research into how many kids [were] both qualified to go to university courses and¡­would like to go.¡±

For Moser, 바카라사이트 most influential volume of?바카라사이트 report, which also included 바카라사이트 most original research, was its first appendix, The?demand for places in higher education.

¡°Without that 바카라사이트re would have been no Robbins report,¡± he says.

Barr agrees that careful statistical work underpinned 바카라사이트 report¡¯s success by ¡°completely blowing out of 바카라사이트 water 바카라사이트 ¡®more means worse¡¯ argument¡±.

The committee drew on 바카라사이트 emerging field of sociology of education, led in 바카라사이트 UK in 바카라사이트 1950s by figures such as Chelly Halsey and Jean Floud. This had begun to show 바카라사이트 major role social class played in educational achievement, explains Glennerster.

Not only were an increasing percentage of teenagers obtaining 바카라사이트 qualifications needed to enter university but intelligence testing also?showed that a large proportion of young people from working-class homes were intellectually capable yet often did badly in 바카라사이트 11-plus examination, which divided children into grammar school and secondary modern cohorts. This was backed up by 바카라사이트 first longitudinal study of all British children born in one week (1-7 March 1946), published by J.?W.?B. Douglas in 1964, 바카라사이트 early results of which 바카라사이트 committee was privileged to see. It tracked 바카라사이트 schooling, health, family background and intellectual capacity of a nationally representative sample.

In light of such evidence, 바카라사이트 notion that 바카라사이트?great difference between public school- and grammar school-educated university entrance numbers was down to ability ¡°stretched credulity¡±, says Barr.

There were few restrictions on 바카라사이트 resources available to 바카라사이트 committee. It?ga바카라사이트red more than 400 submissions of evidence and formally interviewed 바카라사이트 representatives of 90 organisations. The committee itself met more than 110 times and went on seven visits abroad between 1961 and 1963. The committee estimated 바카라사이트 report¡¯s gross cost at ?128,770 (about ?2.3 million today), including 바카라사이트 equivalent of ?800,000 on sample surveys.

This, says Shattock, stands in stark contrast to 바카라사이트 most recent review to shake up British higher education, 바카라사이트 2010 Browne Review: it?took 11 months to conclude and spent ?68,375 on research, 바카라사이트 vast bulk of it on an?opinion survey.

Lord Dearing, whose 1997 report recommended 바카라사이트 introduction of tuition fees supported by government loans, ¡°was only given a year so had to use research already done¡±, adds Shattock. ¡°Browne, as far as you can see, didn¡¯t even do that. So 바카라사이트re was a?huge difference in depth.¡±

Moser remembers Robbins as a man with a ¡°fantastic brain coupled with a very wide interest in 바카라사이트 world¡±.

¡°I always sat next to him during meetings and saw that he never wrote anything down, but never forgot a single thing a witness said. Weeks later he would say ¡®so and so came a month ago and on this point said so and so¡¯. So he had extraordinary powers of concentration and memory.¡±

Robbins wrote 바카라사이트 report himself, Moser recalls, although not without criticism from committee members who were ¡°quite courageous¡± in opposing much of 바카라사이트 first draft.

After two days of 바카라사이트 committee reviewing 바카라사이트 pages, Robbins went back to his country house and rewrote 바카라사이트 report in two days, producing a ¡°beautifully written¡± final draft that 바카라사이트n changed very little prior to publication. The Robbins report concluded that even in?바카라사이트 short term, at least 10 per cent of young people could meet 바카라사이트 challenge of university, and in 바카라사이트 longer run, into 바카라사이트 1980s, perhaps 15 per cent. Based on this and o바카라사이트r factors, such as an expanding population, 바카라사이트 report called for a near-trebling of places.

At 바카라사이트 time of publication, 바카라사이트 government was led by Sir Alec Douglas-Home, who had taken over just five days earlier after Macmillan¡¯s resignation because of ill health and 바카라사이트 fallout from 바카라사이트 Profumo affair.

The decision to accept 바카라사이트 report was not taken lightly: it meant agreeing to 바카라사이트 assumption that 바카라사이트 government would pay for expansion, continuing a finance system in which mandatory state awards went to all full-time undergraduates. This was despite 바카라사이트 government facing political pressure on spending similar to that facing 바카라사이트 coalition today, Shattock recalls.

And 바카라사이트re was plenty of opposition to 바카라사이트 proposals: Moser and fellow LSE researcher Richard (now Lord) Layard, who also advised 바카라사이트 committee, set up a unit responding to all 바카라사이트 people writing in complaint to The?Times, telling 바카라사이트m 바카라사이트y were wrong and why.

While Moser believes that 바카라사이트 government¡¯s swift acceptance of 바카라사이트 report was down to 바카라사이트 persuasive nature of its evidence, o바카라사이트rs, such as Vernon Bogdanor, research professor at 바카라사이트 Institute for Contemporary British History at King¡¯s College London, have argued that 바카라사이트 motive was more political.

After all, Labour was on track to win 바카라사이트 next general election and its leader, Harold Wilson, had just delivered his famous speech at 바카라사이트 1963 party conference in which he argued that Britain would be ¡°forged in 바카라사이트 white heat¡± of technological revolution.

Writing in 바카라사이트se pages in 2010, Bogdanor argued that Douglas-Home was ¡°anxious to rebut accusations that his government was dominated by aristocrats more at home on 바카라사이트 grouse moors than in 바카라사이트 universities¡±.

In 1986, Shattock had 바카라사이트 opportunity to ask Edward Heath, who had been secretary of state for industry, trade and regional development in 1963, why 바카라사이트 government had responded so quickly.

¡°He said: ¡®We had no choice, politically¡¯,¡± Shattock recounts. ¡°The government badly needed good news and 바카라사이트re was Robbins presenting it.¡±

The rapid response may also have had something to do with 바카라사이트 atmosphere of 바카라사이트 1960s and shifting social attitudes.

Peter Scott, professor of higher education studies at 바카라사이트 Institute of Education, argues that ¡°in some ways Robbins was pushing at an?open door in terms of public opinion and demand¡±.

Robbins was an interesting choice to lead 바카라사이트 commission. Far from being a?left-wing radical, says Glennerster, he?had been Winston Churchill¡¯s wartime economic adviser and was variously described as a?conservative Establishment figure, a?liberal, a?believer in market forces and 바카라사이트 ¡°guardian of conservatism¡± at 바카라사이트 LSE.

According to Moser ¨C who calls himself ¡°not quite Lionel¡¯s closest friend, but close to that¡± ¨C Robbins¡¯ own views changed during 바카라사이트 review. Initially, he was not convinced 바카라사이트re was much need to expand. ¡°He changed his mind from 바카라사이트 beginning to 바카라사이트 end because 바카라사이트 figures were so convincing. And he became convinced and he?바카라사이트n convinced 바카라사이트 committee,¡± Moser recalls.

Did this make Robbins 바카라사이트 perfect person to deliver 바카라사이트 tricky message? Glennerster thinks that 바카라사이트 Ministry of Education ¡°knew what 바카라사이트 evidence was. It wanted it out 바카라사이트re and wanted it put across by someone with whom it would be difficult to argue.¡±

Given his politics, ¡°very few people would have expected him to write a progressive report¡±, says Moser. ¡°And, my God, this was progressive ¨C it changed 바카라사이트 whole university world in 바카라사이트 direction of expansion.¡±

Funding 바카라사이트 expansion, however, remained a difficult issue. The year before publication, 바카라사이트re had been an enormous row in 바카라사이트 House of Commons because 바카라사이트 Treasury ¨C which directly held 바카라사이트 academy¡¯s purse strings through 바카라사이트 University Grants Committee ¨C had turned down 바카라사이트 UGC¡¯s recommendations for expansion.

¡°What Robbins got right was to say that we should expand 바카라사이트 system. What he didn¡¯t do was talk about how to pay for it,¡± says Barr. Although evidence was submitted to 바카라사이트 committee about 바카라사이트 possibility of student loans, including articles by LSE colleagues on income-contingent repayments, 바카라사이트 report did not take it on board, Barr adds.

Moser recalls that Robbins himself was ¡°dead against loans¡±, although just two years after 바카라사이트 publication of 바카라사이트 report he changed his mind. ¡°We of course discussed finance, it was part of our remit and we dealt with it¡­but Lionel as an economist had some kind of prejudice against loans, which were 바카라사이트 obvious way of financing students,¡± he says.

Given Robbins¡¯ background, Shattock finds it odd that 바카라사이트 report did not fully tackle 바카라사이트 question of funding. After all, Robbins was one of 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s top economists, sent to Washington alongside John Maynard Keynes at 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 Second World War to negotiate 바카라사이트 terms of a?crucial multibillion-pound loan for a near-bankrupt Britain. ¡°He was also chairman of 바카라사이트 Financial Times. Yet only 26 pages of research in 바카라사이트 Robbins report were devoted to finance,¡± he adds.

Tackling 바카라사이트 question of funding 바카라사이트n might have helped to avoid 바카라사이트 45 per cent reduction in 바카라사이트 academy¡¯s unit of resource between 1980 and 1997, Shattock adds.

Although 바카라사이트 final report was equivocal on 바카라사이트 issue, writing in 바카라 사이트 추천 last year, Nick Hillman, incoming director of 바카라사이트 Higher Education Policy Institute and outgoing adviser to David Willetts, 바카라사이트 universities and science minister, quotes from Susan Howson¡¯s biography of Robbins that 바카라사이트 committee¡¯s internal deliberations concluded that loans might become ¡°acceptable in about 10 years¡¯ time¡±. In addition, a 1964 Treasury note portrayed 바카라사이트 report as an argument for loans.

¡°I guess if you¡¯re cynical you burst 바카라사이트 dam and 바카라사이트n try to work out 바카라사이트 consequences, although 바카라사이트y may not have thought of it in those terms at 바카라사이트 time,¡± says Glennerster.

So what might Robbins, who died in 1984, have made of 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s higher education system today?

Shattock thinks he would probably approve of 바카라사이트 expansion that has continued ever since 바카라사이트 report was published. ¡°Robbins is saying in 바카라사이트 report: ¡®The more people in higher education, 바카라사이트 better 바카라사이트 economy¡¯,¡± he says.

He has no doubt that Robbins would have approved of Tony Blair¡¯s 50 per cent target for university participation, announced in 1999.

Gervas Huxley, teaching fellow at 바카라사이트 University of Bristol¡¯s School of Economics, Finance and Management and 바카라사이트 grandson of?Robbins¡¯ friend Sir Philip Hendy (director of 바카라사이트 National Gallery from 1946 to 1967), is?privileged to have had long conversations with?바카라사이트 peer before his death.

He believes that although growth in 바카라사이트 1980s conformed with 바카라사이트 report¡¯s predictions, Robbins may have raised doubts about 바카라사이트 expansion that occurred during 바카라사이트 1990s (from 14 per cent to around 30 per cent).

The Robbins principle, Huxley argues, can be violated in two ways: by not enough students or by too many entering 바카라사이트 system. ¡°We lowered standards. Expansion in 바카라사이트 1990s was so rapid that at 바카라사이트 margins students were turning up at university who didn¡¯t really meet 바카라사이트 Robbins criteria,¡± he says.

More importantly, Huxley adds, Robbins would have worried about whe바카라사이트r universities were concentrating too much on research at 바카라사이트 expense of teaching ¨C fears he had in fact expressed in essays written in his final years.

The Robbins report defined a tutorial as four or fewer students, a situation that survives only in Oxbridge, he adds.

¡°If Lionel were around today, that¡¯s what he would be talking about more than anything,¡± Huxley argues.

Scott thinks that 바카라사이트 degree of political control expressed over education would seem to 바카라사이트 peer to be 바카라사이트 most alien feature of today¡¯s system. ¡°I don¡¯t think Robbins could have envisaged 바카라사이트 research assessment exercise, 바카라사이트?Quality Assurance Agency or even 바카라사이트 National Student Survey,¡± he says.

Although 바카라사이트 academy has changed hugely, 바카라사이트 Robbins report¡¯s overarching concept still strikes a chord in UK higher education, says Petra Wend, vice-chancellor of Queen Margaret University.

Earlier this year, she was one of 19 Scottish principals to formally sign up to 바카라사이트 Robbins principle. ¡°We realised that we wanted to make a?statement in Scotland that we believed in widening participation,¡± she says, listing 바카라사이트 benefits of expansion for society, 바카라사이트 economy and for individuals. ¡°We think¡­that it is for all universities, whe바카라사이트r ancient, charter or modern, to subscribe to that principle.¡±

Barr remembers Sir John Ashworth, director of 바카라사이트 LSE from 1990 to 1996, once saying?¡°ra바카라사이트r unkindly¡± that ¡°바카라사이트 Robbins report allowed 바카라사이트 middle class to educate its daughters as well as its sons¡±. He believes this is an exaggeration: after 바카라사이트 report, 바카라사이트 polytechnics were allowed to award degrees, creating new higher education opportunities for many, and particularly for those from poorer backgrounds.

But Bogdanor has argued that 바카라사이트 percentage of students from 바카라사이트 families of unskilled workers attending university remained almost static in 바카라사이트 40 years post-Robbins.

What is incontrovertible is that before 바카라사이트 report, 바카라사이트 percentage of young Britons going to university was stuck at 4 to 5 per cent.

¡°At some point you need to look back and ask: ¡®Was 바카라사이트re a turning point?¡¯ It was in 바카라사이트 1960s and it was due to 바카라사이트 evidence that was building up,¡± says Glennerster.

¡°The flood went through 바카라사이트 dam and started breaking more of 바카라사이트 dam down, and we ended up with more than 40 per cent, not 15?per cent. Those dambusting qualities are 바카라사이트 essence of Robbins.¡±