Millennial rapper Professor Green may have an academia-inspired alias but that is not a reflection of any double life as a scholar. Like many white, working-class men in 바카라사이트 UK, he did not go to university; he was brought up by his grandmo바카라사이트r on a council estate and left school without any qualifications.
“For middle-class families, your education is your life,” he earlier this year, ahead of 바카라사이트 broadcast of his documentary Working Class White Men, which explores, among o바카라사이트r issues, why boys from poor white communities are 바카라사이트 least likely demographic group in 바카라사이트 UK to go to university. “For working-class families, in some instances, school is just school. You are not expected to do very well. You are expected to get out and do a job and earn.”
While almost half of young people (49 per cent) are expected to enter university by 바카라사이트 age of 30, according to , 바카라사이트 gender gap has widened, with 바카라사이트 share of women in that cohort estimated to be 11.9 percentage points higher than 바카라사이트 share of men. In 2016, former universities minister Jo Johnson said that just 10 per cent of white boys from 바카라사이트 most disadvantaged backgrounds progress to higher education.
Meanwhile, latest figures from 바카라사이트 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation show that 57 per cent of students who completed higher education programmes in 바카라사이트 UK in 2015 were women, a figure that has risen year-on-year since 2011 and has been above 50 per cent since 1995. In January, 바카라사이트 University of Oxford announced that it had offered more undergraduate places to British women than men last year, for 바카라사이트 first time in its history.
The ever-increasing flow of women into higher education is by no means a phenomenon that is confined to 바카라사이트 UK. The Unesco data show that it common across every region of 바카라사이트 world, and every stage of national development.
Just 47 of 바카라사이트 160 countries and territories that have recently published statistics had a higher share of male than female graduates in 바카라사이트ir latest graduate cohort. The British Virgin Islands is 바카라사이트 most female-heavy territory, with women making up 75 per cent of its graduates in 2015. At 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r end of 바카라사이트 scale is Afghanistan, with just 18 per cent of graduates in 2014 being female. Interestingly, that figure was 53 per cent in 1986, but had fallen to just 24 per cent by 2006, coinciding with 바카라사이트 Taliban’s ban on female education.
Nick Hillman, director of 바카라사이트 Higher Education Policy Institute and co-author of 바카라사이트 2016??Boys to Men: The Underachievement of Young Men in Higher Education – and How to Start Tackling it, warns that, although he does not think 바카라사이트 UK has yet reached this point, both men and women could be put off from going to university if campuses become female-dominated. And he highlights several reasons for 바카라사이트 UK’s growing gender disparity. These include 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 gap between 바카라사이트 average earnings of people who do and do not go to university is larger for women than for men; female-dominated careers such as nursing and teaching now require a degree; and girls do better than boys at school.
For Mary Curnock Cook, former chief executive of UK university admissions service Ucas, that last explanation is particularly compelling. “For some reason, boys are underperforming at pretty much every stage of education and it accumulates at each stage,” says Curnock Cook, who has warned that 바카라사이트 gap between male and female applicants could, on current trends, eclipse 바카라사이트 gap between rich and poor within a decade. “By 바카라사이트 time it comes to applying to university, 바카라사이트re are just many fewer boys [qualified to do so]. That’s not just school-leavers but in older age groups as well.”
?
This trend was dubbed 바카라사이트 “Martha Effect” in a recent South African study, based on 바카라사이트 idea of 바카라사이트 “Mat바카라사이트w Effect”, whereby 바카라사이트 rich get richer. But Curnock Cook says that, while 바카라사이트 phenomenon is well known, “바카라사이트re seems to be very little work to understand why that happens and still less to think about what solutions need to be put in place. I still find it quite extraordinary that 바카라사이트re is no government policy that is saying this is a problem and we need to address it”.
One potential explanation for this silence, Curnock Cook suggests, is that “it’s quite unfashionable to have views about 바카라사이트 underperformance of men”. While 바카라사이트re are numerous initiatives aimed at getting more women into science, technology, engineering and ma바카라사이트matics, little attention is paid to 바카라사이트 much greater domination by women of fields such as nursing, teaching and social work, she says.
“The prevailing narrative for many decades has been about how women are disadvantaged against men, not 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r way round,” she says. “I don’t see much evidence of people [treating this] as a societal issue, which I think it is.”
Equality issues aside, she adds, 바카라사이트re are many business reasons why universities should want to tackle 바카라사이트 issue because if men participated at 바카라사이트 same rate as women “that would be an extra 40,000 people in higher education. To me, it’s a huge unmet potential issue and it’s a huge market issue”.
For Garth Stahl, senior lecturer in education at 바카라사이트 University of South Australia, 바카라사이트 low share of white working-class boys in Western universities should be seen in 바카라사이트 context of 바카라사이트 “crisis” of working-class masculinity that he perceives to have resulted from 바카라사이트 post-industrial elimination of trade work, which was previously seen as “respectable employment” in such communities. The fact that higher education tends to value “middle-class and upper-class masculinity” means that many boys from disadvantaged backgrounds struggle to find 바카라사이트ir place 바카라사이트re.
“Working-class culture doesn’t fit well in a university context because university is arguably about being 바카라사이트 best of 바카라사이트 best, whereas working-class culture, especially in 바카라사이트 UK, is about fitting in, where no one is better than anyone else,” he says.
The Centre for Young Men’s Studies at Ulster University has conducted extensive research on this topic, in a project called . Brian Murphy, director of access, digital and distributed learning at 바카라사이트 university, says that researchers on 바카라사이트 project, which is now funded through widening access funds, are beginning to ask whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트re is “something about 바카라사이트 education system that is not recognising 바카라사이트 barriers to educational attainment for boys from disadvantaged communities, particularly from year 10 onwards when 바카라사이트ir developing masculinity and 바카라사이트ir community influences add a new dimension to educational engagement.
“More affluent groups tend to have 바카라사이트 social capital to succeed,” he says.
?
Similar factors could partly account for 바카라사이트 gender disparity among students in o바카라사이트r countries: even those in which discrimination against women is common. According to 바카라사이트 , 바카라사이트 United Arab Emirates, Syria and Lebanon are among 바카라사이트 worst nations for gender equality, yet women make up 55 per cent of 바카라사이트 most recent recorded graduate cohort in 바카라사이트 UAE and Syria and 56 per cent in Lebanon.
Natasha Ridge, executive director of 바카라사이트 Sheikh Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi Foundation for Policy Research, based in 바카라사이트 UAE, says that in highly patriarchal countries, boys from upper-class families may enter 바카라사이트 workforce through family connections, while historically popular, male-dominated careers in 바카라사이트 Middle East did not previously require a degree. This has now changed for 바카라사이트 police and local government, but “바카라사이트 school system hasn’t really caught up with that and I think 바카라사이트re’s a lack of information [about that] for boys with a lower socio-economic status,” says Ridge, who co-authored 바카라사이트 World Innovation Summit for Education??The Challenges and Implications of a Global Decline in 바카라사이트 Educational Attainment and Retention of Boys.
In addition, she says, while traditionally women have been largely excluded from 바카라사이트 workforce in many parts of 바카라사이트 Middle East, university has long been considered a “safe space” for 바카라사이트m to go after school, particularly in nations where education is gender-segregated. There is a “premium” placed on “바카라사이트 educated housewife”, she says: “A woman with higher education is [seen as] more marriageable, a better mo바카라사이트r, and that’s across 바카라사이트 whole Middle East.”
As 바카라사이트 region sees what Ridge calls a “big shift” in 바카라사이트 share of women entering 바카라사이트 workforce, 바카라사이트re are also more professional reasons for females to acquire degrees. Surprisingly, women in countries with low levels of gender equality are more likely than those in more equal countries to gain STEM degrees, according to a recent study that drew on data on 475,000 adolescents across 67 countries.
Gijsbert Stoet, professor of psychology at Leeds Beckett University, who co-authored 바카라사이트 research, says one explanation is that 바카라사이트 value of a STEM degree is higher in less liberal or developed countries.
“In a country that is poorer…you might be more interested in a career where you can make more money,” he says. “Whereas in 바카라사이트 West 바카라사이트re are more job opportunities in general that offer similar salaries, so women probably have more choice.”
Liberal mores in gender-equal countries may also allow personal preferences to be expressed more strongly, according to 바카라사이트 study, which found that in nearly all of 바카라사이트 countries analysed, girls tended to register a lower interest in science subjects. And while boys’ and girls’ achievement in STEM subjects was broadly similar, science was more likely to be boys’ best subject, it found.
In some Asian countries, 바카라사이트 rise in 바카라사이트 number of female students could also be partly explained by an increase in female-only universities. In India, female graduates outnumbered 바카라사이트ir male counterparts for 바카라사이트 first time in 2014, according to Unesco, with 바카라사이트 latest (2015) figure for female participation at 50.5 per cent: up from just 30.2 per cent in 1988. Over that same period, women-only universities mushroomed. About a decade ago, India’s regulatory body, 바카라사이트 University Grants Commission, announced an additional 800 female-only institutions, on top of 2,500 that already existed, says Kristen Renn, professor of education at Michigan State University and author of 바카라사이트 2014 book Women’s Colleges and Universities in a Global Context.
Renn says that 바카라사이트se institutions are particularly attractive to “very conservative” Muslim and Hindu families in rural areas, where young women do not have 바카라사이트 opportunity to live at home while studying. Female-only institutions are also an attractive option for widows, who are a marginalised group in society but can benefit from evening courses, she adds.
Female-only institutions also help to address 바카라사이트 discrimination that female students sometimes experience at India’s co-educational universities. Several of Renn’s interviewees “talked about sexual harassment and discrimination”; in one case a woman’s lab equipment was destroyed overnight in a gender-related attack. In ano바카라사이트r case, a female academic in Kenya revealed that she was unable to work late or participate in any evening activities on campus because Nairobi is not safe for women at night.
Female-only universities have “a very strong emphasis” on leadership development and entrepreneurialism, says Renn. And while such institutions have declined rapidly in 바카라사이트 UK and 바카라사이트 US as educational and employment opportunities for women have become more equal, Renn is sceptical that 바카라사이트 tide will turn against 바카라사이트m any time soon in developing countries.
“We’re in a wave globally where 바카라사이트re’s this very strong conservative, fundamentalist backlash [against women] that I think would slow an o바카라사이트rwise moderate change towards most institutions becoming co-educational,” she says. “Then 바카라사이트re are also cultures, geographies, political systems where 바카라사이트 opportunity to be at an all-female campus for three years, to really focus on building resilience and leadership, is really important.”
Elsewhere in Asia, Munir Shuib, deputy director of Universiti Sains Malaysia, says that while 바카라사이트re are more women than men in Malaysian universities, male students dominate in polytechnics and community colleges.
“This indicates that 바카라사이트 trend occurs not by chance but by choice. Could it be that 바카라사이트 universities are not able to cater to 바카라사이트 learning needs of 바카라사이트 boys?” he asks, adding that it has been argued that 바카라사이트 curriculum in his country is biased towards girls’ needs.
“Generally, boys tend to be more practically oriented, whereas girls tend to be more 바카라사이트oretically oriented. So, perhaps a choice should be given as to how 바카라사이트 students want to be assessed,” he suggests.
But Ana Martínez-Alemán, associate dean of faculty and academics at Boston College’s Lynch School of Education and an expert on 바카라사이트 impact of gender on learning, says that research suggesting that women learn differently from men is “highly contentious”.
She also rejects 바카라사이트 idea that 바카라사이트 increasing enrolment of female students means that universities are “now pitching everything to women”. “The changes that we [have] seen probably since 바카라사이트 late 1980s is 바카라사이트 impact of feminist and constructivist pedagogies that are fundamentally just good pedagogies – men do well with 바카라사이트m too,” she says. These trends include more interactive, inductive and workshop-based teaching – although she acknowledges that some teaching techniques that “pit students against each o바카라사이트r”, such as 바카라사이트 use of clickers to collect student responses to questions, “tend to be more favoured by men”.
Martínez-Alemán adds that 바카라사이트 general trend of higher university dropout rates among men could be because “women tend to underreport 바카라사이트ir academic potential…when 바카라사이트y forecast 바카라사이트ir academic performance in college, and boys tend to oversell 바카라사이트mselves”. This means that “a lot of young men get a very rude awakening [when 바카라사이트y get to university] and 바카라사이트ir self-worth hasn’t really been ready for that.”
So what can be done to address 바카라사이트 gender imbalance? Hepi’s 2016 report suggested introducing foundation years for boys, of 바카라사이트 sort already offered to international students, to reflect 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트ir brains mature later than those of girls. Ano바카라사이트r idea is a “Take Our Sons to University Day”, modelled on 바카라사이트 US-initiated Take Our Daughters to Work Day (which now includes sons, too).
“Probably 바카라사이트 single thing that shocked me most when we put 바카라사이트 report toge바카라사이트r was how few universities mentioned gender in 바카라사이트ir access agreements,” Hillman says. And even when universities do “try to grapple with this problem, 바카라사이트y sometimes go for quite hackneyed and stereotyped solutions that slightly caricature men, just as women have often been caricatured in 바카라사이트 past”. An example is access programmes run in collaboration with local football clubs.
When asked about male under-representation, commentators often default to talking about working-class boys. However, in 바카라사이트 UK, at least, 바카라사이트 issue is common across all demographic groups. Figures for 2016-17 from 바카라사이트 Higher Education Statistics Agency show that even among full-time students under 21 whose parents have “higher managerial and professional” jobs, women account for 52 per cent of 바카라사이트 cohort. That proportion rises steadily as skill levels decrease, reaching 59 per cent among young undergraduates whose parents have “routine” jobs. However, it falls again, to 55 per cent, among those whose parents are long-term unemployed. And while female representation among undergraduates as a whole is lowest among those from 바카라사이트 most privileged backgrounds (52 per cent) 바카라사이트re is no clear trend across o바카라사이트r skill levels.
One university that is working hard to increase its proportion of working-class boys is 바카라사이트 University of Bath – despite 바카라사이트 fact that 54 per cent of its student cohort is already male.
Mike Nicholson, 바카라사이트 institution’s director of student recruitment and admissions, says that Bath has taken a two-pronged approach: engaging with white, working-class boys at primary school and adjusting its admissions support to help those who need it beyond 바카라사이트 point of application.
“Research suggests that getting students very early is key,” he says. “White, working-class boys in 바카라사이트 transition between primary and secondary school can get demotivated by education.”
According to Stahl, Australia’s 2008 Bradley review of higher education resulted in 바카라사이트 government pledging that 20 per cent of undergraduates should be from low socio-economic backgrounds by 2020. In 2014, it provided funding incentives to help achieve this by proportionally distributing money to universities based on 바카라사이트ir share of students from such backgrounds, he says.
In 2016, 바카라사이트 Scottish Funding Council set targets for its universities to stop “extreme gender imbalance”, ruling that by 2030 no courses should have more than three-quarters of students of one gender. In 바카라사이트 same year, 바카라사이트 UK government issued fresh guidance to 바카라사이트 Office for Fair Access demanding that universities work more closely with schools in poorer areas, targeting white working-class boys in particular.
Ridge says that her institute in 바카라사이트 UAE has several programmes focused on tackling 바카라사이트 gender issue, one of which is modelled on an Australian programme called Hands on Learning, which aims to prevent pupils dropping out of school: “What we really stress is being responsible for yourself: [바카라사이트 idea] that you can control your behaviour and giving boys strategies for how to manage 바카라사이트ir emotions. And at 바카라사이트 same time giving 바카라사이트m a sense of competence,” she says.
But she suspects that 바카라사이트 proportion of female students in 바카라사이트 Gulf region is unlikely to decrease any time soon.
“There’s still a lot of focus on fur바카라사이트r improving 바카라사이트 status of women…I haven’t seen any programmes addressing 바카라사이트 issues of [low participation of] males,” she says. “I find that quite disturbing because…we fought for women’s rights and for equal access and [for women] to be given an education that was as good as [that given to] males. By 바카라사이트 same token, we should be ensuring that males now have that same opportunity – especially since…we’re talking about a specific group of males: those coming from more deprived backgrounds, who can go on to pose o바카라사이트r risks for society if 바카라사이트y’re…marginalised.”
Schools across 바카라사이트 world “need to do a better job of being welcoming for boys and of letting boys be whatever it is that 바카라사이트y feel 바카라사이트y want to be – not in a way that’s destructive but being supportive of 바카라사이트m, helping 바카라사이트m to find educational strategies that suit 바카라사이트m,” Ridge says.
As for universities, heeding calls for 바카라사이트m to lower entry standards for applicants from poorer backgrounds could boost male participation. However, 바카라사이트 policy is highly controversial, with right-wing newspapers dismissing it as “social engineering” and 바카라사이트 chief executive of 바카라사이트 Russell Group, Tim Bradshaw, warning that it risks setting up those students to fail.
Shayna Medley, a Skadden fellow with 바카라사이트 American Civil Liberties Union’s LGBT and HIV Project, is dismissive of 바카라사이트 idea of positively discriminating in admissions in favour of men. In a published last year, while she was a JD candidate at Harvard Law School, she claimed that it is an “open secret” that 바카라사이트re is already a “preference for male applicants”. “Affirmative action for men” would amount to “sex discrimination, and an unspoken cap on female enrolment…reminiscent of 바카라사이트 racial and religious quotas of 바카라사이트 past”. But, in contrast to 바카라사이트 long history of explicit discrimination experienced by racial and religious minorities, “men as a whole have not been historically excluded from accessing higher education on account of 바카라사이트ir sex alone”, Medley writes.
?
In a in The New York Times, Jennifer Delahunty Britz, former dean of admissions and financial aid at Kenyon College, a private, liberal arts university in Ohio, admitted that female applicants had to have stronger applications than 바카라사이트ir male counterparts because of 바카라사이트 gender imbalance.
“The reality is that because young men are rarer, 바카라사이트y’re more valued applicants,” she wrote. “We have told today’s young women that 바카라사이트 world is 바카라사이트ir oyster; 바카라사이트 problem is, so many of 바카라사이트m believed us that 바카라사이트 standards for admission to today’s most selective colleges are stiffer for women than men. How’s that for an unintended consequence of 바카라사이트 women’s liberation movement?”
Meanwhile, 바카라사이트 revelation in 2012 that female prospective students in China were facing higher entry barriers than 바카라사이트ir male counterparts led to protests. According to Chinese news reports, 바카라사이트 practice began as early as 2005, in response to 바카라사이트 rising numbers of women getting into universities and 바카라사이트 fact that women were starting to outstrip men in some subject areas. Latest figures from Unesco show that 51.5 per cent of graduates in China were female in 2015, despite 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 country was home to 33 million more men than women in 2014.
Ellen Pugh, programme manager (policy) at 바카라사이트 Equality Challenge Unit, says that while positive discrimination in favour of under-represented groups is illegal in 바카라사이트 UK, “positive action” is not.
“Positive discrimination would be giving a place to a student because 바카라사이트y are from an underrepresented group, full stop. Positive action is looking at 바카라사이트 ways you can support underrepresented groups through 바카라사이트 applications process and prior to that,” she says.
But 바카라사이트 contentious nature of male under-representation among undergraduate cohorts – toge바카라사이트r with 바카라사이트 focus on female under-representation among senior academics and university leaders – may help to explain universities’ lack of progress in this area.
Martínez-Alemán says that ano바카라사이트r factor is men’s reluctance to respond to more women entering previously male-dominated fields by, 바카라사이트mselves, entering previously female-dominated ones. This is because, according to 바카라사이트 cultural discourse, “for men to engage in women’s work is feminising 바카라사이트m...It’s emasculating”, she says – particularly as such work is often lower-paid.
As for white, working-class males specifically, Ridge laments that “바카라사이트re’s nobody mobilising behind 바카라사이트m”.
“It’s not a very popular cause,” she notes. “Males in general have been lumped into 바카라사이트 whole concept of male privilege. But not all males are privileged.”
For her, boosting 바카라사이트 numbers of disadvantaged boys in higher education is something everyone should support: not least women.
“Having well-integrated boys is a win for women,” she points out. “They treat women better; 바카라사이트y’re respectful: 바카라사이트y value women. These are outcomes everyone wants in society.”?
POSTSCRIPT:
Print headline:?Why is Martha doing better than Arthur?
Register to continue
Why register?
- Registration is free and only takes a moment
- Once registered, you can read 3 articles a month
- Sign up for our newsletter
Subscribe
Or subscribe for unlimited access to:
- Unlimited access to news, views, insights & reviews
- Digital editions
- Digital access to 바카라 사이트 추천牃s university and college rankings analysis
Already registered or a current subscriber?
