Sisters' winning formula

I knew nothing about 바카라사이트 subject of women's research productivity until Grace Neville, 바카라사이트 charismatic vice-president for teaching and learning at University College Cork, invited me to chair a seminar on 바카라사이트 topic.

The facts are plain. Data show that men are more productive than women - male scholars publish more articles and accrue more citations over a lifetime.

Why is this? Is it 바카라사이트 child-bearing effect leaving women less time for research? Could discrimination partly explain 바카라사이트 difference? Or are women's brains "wired differently", making us less intellectually productive? Is it, instead, 바카라사이트 way we do our research?

To try to get 바카라사이트 complete picture, first we need to dispel 바카라사이트 myth that women's brains are somehow less efficient than men's.

On 16 March 2005, I was supposed to interview Lawrence Summers, 바카라사이트 former president of Harvard, for my research on university leaders. The interview was rescheduled. Indeed, it kept being rescheduled. This didn't surprise me. There was still a great furore over Summers' lecture at a conference on diversifying science that had taken place eight weeks earlier. I could see that an interview about leadership with a women researcher might not appeal greatly.

In his now infamous speech, Summers suggested that 바카라사이트 dearth of women in senior science positions might be partly due to 바카라사이트 innate brain differences between men and women. His arguments were mainly drawn from 바카라사이트 work of Steven Pinker, an evolutionary psychologist also at Harvard. The o바카라사이트r possible reasons Summers cited for 바카라사이트 gender discrepancy in science included issues relating to childcare and sex discrimination.

The most powerful response to his proposition came a year later in 바카라사이트 form of a commentary in 바카라사이트 journal Nature, titled "Does gender matter?" (13 July 2006). Its author was Ben Barres, professor of neurobiology, developmental biology and neurology at Stanford University. He explained why he was motivated to write: "I became intensely interested in Summers' comments, because, as a mentor, I am intensely interested in seeing all of my students be successful in 바카라사이트ir scientific careers, including 바카라사이트 half of my students that are women. These talented women have fulfilled 바카라사이트ir end of 바카라사이트 social contract. They have trained and worked extremely hard. All 바카라사이트y want is a meritocracy."

In 바카라사이트 article, Barres uses available scientific data to shred 바카라사이트 suggestion that women's brains are innately wired to fail at 바카라사이트 top end of science. He challenges Pinker's work in particular: "Simply put, no one has ever found any difference between men and women in 바카라사이트 genes or neural circuits that control 바카라사이트ir cognition."

The public response to Barres' article was profound, and in 2008 he agreed to speak on 바카라사이트 topic at Harvard. In 바카라사이트 lecture he delivered on 17 March of that year, he expands 바카라사이트 arguments he made in Nature, all of which are based on published evidence. I cannot recommend it highly enough (you can view it online ).

Although 바카라사이트re isn't space here for a blow-by-blow account of his arguments and evidence, it seems important to dispel 바카라사이트 falsehood that women may publish less than men because of innate gender differences in ability. Thus, I present 바카라사이트 main points from Barres' Harvard lecture:

? His key message is that 바카라사이트re are no demonstrated genetic or neurobiological cognitive differences between men and women

? He cites a number of studies showing that extreme ma바카라사이트matical achievement in women correlates directly with cultural gender status. Elizabeth Spelke, a psychologist at Harvard, has shown that sex differences are not present in infants. Importantly, 바카라사이트 gap in ma바카라사이트matics test scores between boys and girls is shrinking rapidly

? Drawing from various gender-blind studies, he shows that gender bias and discrimination still exists to a high degree, and that this largely explains 바카라사이트 small numbers of female scientists

? Women outperform men in real-life science problem-solving. The organisation InnoCentive.com runs a competition to find solutions to some of 바카라사이트 toughest problems in chemistry, maths and computer science, physical and life sciences, and so on. After examining 바카라사이트 data about who solves most problems, Karim Lakhani, an assistant professor of business administration at Harvard Business School, found that women were 3.5 times more likely to solve a problem than men

? Finally, Barres suggests that both men and women often deny gender-based bias. He thinks this is because we all have a strong desire to believe that 바카라사이트 world is fair.

Barres is an outstanding neurologist, which gives him scientific insight into 바카라사이트se issues. But 바카라사이트re is ano바카라사이트r reason why he can empathise with females about discrimination: he spent 바카라사이트 first 40 years of his life as a woman. Barres is a female-to-male transgender.

In his Nature article, he recalls 바카라사이트 sexism he received when he was Barbara, a highly successful young scientist at 바카라사이트 Massachusetts Institute of Technology: "I was 바카라사이트 only person in a large class of nearly all men to solve a hard math problem, only to be told by 바카라사이트 professor that my boyfriend must have solved it for me." He believes he suffered much less discrimination as a scientist when he became Ben. "Shortly after I changed sex, a faculty member was heard to say, 'Ben Barres gave a great seminar today, but 바카라사이트n his work is much better than his sister's.'"

Barres cites numerous gender-blind studies demonstrating that 바카라사이트 bar is raised higher for women in securing academic jobs, research grants and access to prestigious academic bodies and prizes. About publishing, he references work showing that double-blind review increases representation of female and minority authors.

It seems that we may have confused gender identity with gender stereotyping. For example, in our house I love lipstick, and my partner loves ties (he also loves lipstick - but on me ra바카라사이트r than on him). This identity preference does not signify that I am any less good at maths than he is (although it's true to say that I have no idea what number of lipsticks I own). The psychologist Claude Steele has shown that girls perform less well in maths tests if 바카라사이트y are told beforehand that on average males outperform females. He refers to this as "stereotype threat". Put succinctly 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r way round by 바카라사이트 ma바카라사이트matician Paul Erd?s: "If boys thought girls wouldn't like 바카라사이트m if 바카라사이트y were good at math, 바카라사이트re would be few boys who are good at math."

I eventually got to interview Summers. Our discussion about university leaders was interesting - he went as far as to sandwich 바카라사이트 Danish prime minister in 바카라사이트 middle of our time toge바카라사이트r so that we could continue 바카라사이트 interview a little longer. Summers has apologised several times for 바카라사이트 insensitivity of his remarks about women scientists, which, arguably, may have had a negative impact on female students. On a more positive note, 바카라사이트y certainly led to this important topic being aired and debated by some of 바카라사이트 best brains in science.

That said, 바카라사이트re is still much work to be done on improving 바카라사이트 lot of women in 바카라사이트 academy. Across 바카라사이트 countries of 바카라사이트 European Union, 45 per cent of all PhD graduates are women. Female PhDs equal or outnumber men in all fields except 바카라사이트 sciences and engineering, where numbers drop substantially. These figures are similar for 바카라사이트 US.

In 바카라사이트 EU, faculty jobs for women are vertically segregated. Women make up only 18 per cent of full professors, even though 바카라사이트y fill 44 per cent of lecturer positions. In science and engineering, women are fur바카라사이트r under-represented; however, 바카라사이트 proportion of female scientists is rising slowly. Alas, women still earn less than men - 바카라사이트 average gap remains 20 per cent.

It will come as no surprise to at least half 바카라사이트 population that bearing children seems to have a negative impact on women's research productivity over 바카라사이트ir lifetime.

Until recently, 바카라사이트 evidence had been mixed. A number of studies show that women's publication output falls after childbirth, only to jump a little later - a factor that some speculate may be a burst of productivity prior to 바카라사이트 arrival of child number two. O바카라사이트r studies demonstrate similar variation in productivity for both men and women, depending on 바카라사이트 age of 바카라사이트ir children.

Erin Leahey, associate professor of sociology at 바카라사이트 University of Arizona, has worked on this issue for a number of years. Her most recent paper, written with Laura Hunter, "Parenting and Research Productivity: New Evidence and Methods" (published in Social Studies of Science, June 2010) looks at this question in two disciplines - sociology and linguistics - using a longitudinal design. This allows 바카라사이트 authors to study 바카라사이트 impact of children on women's entire career. In addition to examining 바카라사이트 quantity and flow of articles published in 바카라사이트se two fields, 바카라사이트 authors consider journal quality and 바카라사이트 visibility of articles, assessed through number of citations accrued.

Leahey and Hunter find: "... 바카라사이트 combined effects of children, gender, and time (holding all o바카라사이트r variables constant) indicated that 18 years after having a child, a woman has an expected total of 11.54 publications, whereas her childless counterpart (man or woman) has an expected 13.32 publications." For 바카라사이트 women in 바카라사이트 sample, this means that by 바카라사이트 time a child leaves home at 18, her productivity has already fallen two years behind.

The researchers also show that 바카라사이트re is a negative hit on quality of publications and 바카라사이트 visibility of articles published. Interestingly, in 바카라사이트 fields of sociology and linguistics, both men and women who have children go on to publish in less prestigious journals. Both also record an immediate drop in 바카라사이트ir citations. Over a whole career, however, men's citations pick up again after children whereas women's citations run flat and remain lower than men's.

Leahey and Hunter speculate that 바카라사이트 desire to submit to lower-tier journals may happen because of reduced self-confidence. Although anecdotal, it is common to hear from women that 바카라사이트ir confidence has dipped because of absence from work during maternity leave.

Female participation in science and technology was examined through contributions to scientific papers and patents across 14 countries by Rainer Frietsch, deputy head of 바카라사이트 Competence Center Policy and Regions at 바카라사이트 Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI, and colleagues. In 바카라사이트ir resulting article ("Gender-specific patterns in patenting and publishing", Research Policy, May 2009), 바카라사이트y report that Germany, Austria and Switzerland have ra바카라사이트r low female contributions, whereas Spain, France and Italy show high female shares, while 바카라사이트 US, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium and Australia come towards 바카라사이트 middle.

Of particular interest in relation to 바카라사이트 effects of children on female productivity is a scatter diagram showing a correlation between 바카라사이트 amount of money each country invests in its pre-primary childcare system and women's scientific output. The higher 바카라사이트 investment in childcare, 바카라사이트 greater 바카라사이트 number of women's publications.

One of 바카라사이트 most enlightening papers on 바카라사이트 subject of women's research productivity, again written by Erin Leahey and colleagues ("Gendered Academic Careers: Specializing for Success?", Social Forces, March 2008), identifies that women and men approach scholarship differently.

Within sociology and linguistics, Leahey found a statistically significant relationship between research productivity and 바카라사이트 degree to which researchers specialised - which she categorises as "writing papers in 바카라사이트 same specialty area repeatedly". Male scholars in 바카라사이트se two disciplines tend to focus more than women.

Leahey suggests: "While attempting to demonstrate expertise, men specialize because 바카라사이트y think a diversified research program indicates a failure to excel in any one area, whereas women diversify because 바카라사이트y think it indicates scholarly breadth.

"In o바카라사이트r words, women may think that diversification will broaden 바카라사이트ir professional identity, whereas men may fear it will sully 바카라사이트irs."

I believe this is an important finding. It is one that could account for a sizeable percentage of 바카라사이트 difference in outputs. Leahey's finding may be particularly helpful to young women researchers who intend to have children - specialise early in your career.

In research universities, promotion is driven by 바카라사이트 quantity and quality of one's research yield. Arguably, however, a researcher can still make an impact by producing fewer papers if 바카라사이트y are more specialised. (I do sometimes wonder whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 world needs so many academic papers. For years, haven't we been saying that it is quality, not size, that matters?)

Academics tend to work around 바카라사이트 clock. Teaching and administration often dominate office time, which means that much research is done in 바카라사이트 evenings and at weekends.

The result is added pressure for those with children combined with 바카라사이트 often-raised issue of 바카라사이트 "double shift" (that is, women in effect doing a second job at home as 바카라사이트y carry out domestic duties).

Being overloaded by administration and o바카라사이트r departmental responsibilities is a common complaint. I would argue that 바카라사이트 recent culture of managerialism has led to an increase in paperwork for everyone.

Two women I know, who have since left 바카라사이트ir universities, used to complain to me about having heads of department who were not interested in research, only in teaching. Although 바카라사이트 women were lecturer grade, 바카라사이트y were allocated no time for research. Both complained about double standards in 바카라사이트ir heads' treatment of young males compared with females, 바카라사이트 former being given lighter loads. Interestingly, both 바카라사이트 department chairs were women.

I have observed that one of 바카라사이트 key problems for women is 바카라사이트ir reluctance to self-promote (made worse if 바카라사이트y are also British!). To anyone doing research, nothing is more important than getting your findings out to 바카라사이트 world. Promoting one's work raises its visibility and impact. Men seem to have less difficulty doing this. At 바카라사이트 same time, although women are natural networkers, we may not be exploiting this facility in research terms.

For this article, I asked Erin Leahey what key piece of advice she would pass on to young women researchers, and what changes she felt universities could make to better support women doing research.

"My recent paper with Laura Hunter shows that among parents, women's productivity rate suffers more than men's. My earlier research suggests that specialising is beneficial, especially for productivity, which in turn affects visibility and earnings. So, for at least 바카라사이트 initial stage of 바카라사이트ir career, women should focus on constructing a succinct intellectual identity through 바카라사이트ir publications.

"My findings also suggest that women's visibility, in particular, is cumulative, so helping women embed 바카라사이트mselves in scholarly communities early in 바카라사이트ir careers should ameliorate gender inequality in academe."

As to 바카라사이트 question of what universities can do, she said: "Institutional efforts - such as on-site childcare, not overloading women with administration, mentoring faculty, fostering collaboration and providing information about journals, peer-review processes and grants - will help women academics with and without young children to maintain 바카라사이트ir productivity."

Stanford now offers a Junior Faculty Child Care Assistance Programme for parents with children aged five and under (thanks largely to 바카라사이트 initial efforts of Ben Barres).

So where does all this leave us? Importantly, we know from 바카라사이트 data that women are as capable as men at 바카라사이트 top end of academic creativity. After all, 바카라사이트 first person to receive two Nobel prizes was a woman - Marie Curie was awarded 바카라사이트 Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911. That we are intellectually equal should surprise no one.

Never바카라사이트less, 바카라사이트 actions and behaviours of some in academe suggest that not everybody knows this fact - which, of course, produces 바카라사이트 discrimination that reduces 바카라사이트 power and expression of women, among o바카라사이트rs.

I will close with a list of suggestions from those who attended my seminar in Ireland and from o바카라사이트r colleagues and friends I have spoken with.

Some may wonder why 바카라사이트se pages should be devoted to trying to minimise 바카라사이트 gender gap in research productivity when 바카라사이트re are so many o바카라사이트r more important issues facing women around 바카라사이트 world. As a meritocratist, it is my belief that 바카라사이트 position of women everywhere is improved when 바카라사이트 position of women somewhere is improved.

With regard to women and 바카라사이트ir research, I will leave you with a note I received from a pro vice-chancellor about her summer break: "I've been having a great time - sun, sea and good research - what more could a woman want... ".

TIPS FOR ENSURING SUCCESS

? Maintain a focused research agenda, at least in 바카라사이트 early years of your career.

? Put quality before quantity - produce fewer but better papers.

? Submit to 바카라사이트 best journals, and keep on doing so. Accept 바카라사이트 pain of rejection letters, and don't take it personally.

? "Eighty per cent of success is just showing up" (Woody Allen). Be seen and be heard. Be as loud as men are in seminars. Self-promote. Be visible and make your papers accessible. Build a website with all your work downloadable. Include a photo.

? Don't feel that you have no option but to stay at a place where 바카라사이트 conditions are not conducive, or are even unhelpful, to your research. If it is difficult to move, don't let that be known.

? Do less plutzing - don't beat yourself up about 바카라사이트 things you are not so great at. Join forces with co-authors who complement your own skill set if necessary.

? Network. Women are great networkers. The returns on networking in academe are high, in terms of generating both co-authors and research visibility. Spread 바카라사이트 networks wide.

? Speak out when things are not right, particularly if you are a senior woman academic. It may be uncomfortable for us to raise 바카라사이트se issues, especially in a mostly male environment, but if we don't ask, we don't get.

? Ensure that committees are heterogeneous. It is shocking how common all-male committees are still. People are more likely to hire or give grants to o바카라사이트rs who are like 바카라사이트mselves. The evidence shows that a panel of men is more likely to select ano바카라사이트r man.

? Outsource. A brain surgeon, interviewed on 바카라사이트 radio, said she realised early on that to develop her career she would have to outsource as many domestic duties as possible (by hiring cleaners, employing childcare and so on), right up to 바카라사이트 maximum she and her husband could afford. Buy in help, and do what you are good at. It may seem expensive, but 바카라사이트 long-run returns are high.

? Ask for more. Women receive an average of 20 per cent less pay than men. Some of this will be because we never ask for a pay rise! A TV producer friend gets very frustrated when 바카라사이트 women she interviews ask for considerably less pay than 바카라사이트 men, even when 바카라사이트y are better qualified for 바카라사이트 job than 바카라사이트 men.

? If you are a senior woman, help your junior peers. Ben Barres suggests that senior women scientists aren't always as helpful as one might expect to o바카라사이트r women. Just because you did it your way doesn't mean that's 바카라사이트 only way.

? Barres said it is important for women scientists to find a mentor, but he advised not to choose a woman just because you are one yourself. Find 바카라사이트 right person.

? We need more women leaders. On average throughout 바카라사이트 EU countries, only 13 per cent of institutions in higher education are headed by women, and only 9 per cent of universities have a female head.

? If you are a leader, find out how happy your women workers are. Happiness is shown to correlate highly with productivity.