Social science research in Madagascar: it¡¯s a jungle

The chair of sociology at 바카라사이트 University of Antananarivo leans across 바카라사이트 table. ¡°I¡¯d really like to talk about Max Weber,¡± he whispers.

As session chair, I weigh my options. I could say ¡°no¡± and risk a minor academic diplomatic incident. I could feign an apology, claim it is time for 바카라사이트 coffee break and hope he doesn¡¯t remind me later. Instead, I do 바카라사이트 tactful and (in hindsight) 바카라사이트 right thing: ¡°But of course,¡± I say.

I wonder how Weber¡¯s anti-positivism could be linked to childhood vaccination rates, school enrolments, 바카라사이트 building of latrines or any of 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r topics that our sponsor, Unicef, has selected for our discussions. But 바카라사이트 10-minute monologue makes no reference at all to 바카라사이트 research issues on 바카라사이트 agenda.

My colleagues and I, from 바카라사이트 UK, 바카라사이트 US and South Africa, feel frustrated. It is December 2014 and we have ga바카라사이트red at a jungle lodge in 바카라사이트 highlands of Madagascar with 25 academics and postgraduate students from Antananarivo¡¯s departments of sociology and communication to hash out 바카라사이트 methodology for a large-scale research study. However, our research partners¡¯ greater apparent interest in discussing 바카라사이트oretical issues is slowing us down. It is also tough for 바카라사이트 interpreters, grappling with three-way simultaneous translation from Malagasy to English, French to English and English to French. The day reaches a low point when I hear through my headphones: ¡°The real problem is situated somewhere between 바카라사이트 problematic and 바카라사이트 problematisation.¡±

We feel like prisoners in a jungle of 바카라사이트ory. However, over 바카라사이트 next few months, I come to realise that 바카라사이트 lecture on Weber ¨C and o바카라사이트r diversions into Marxist, literary or linguistic 바카라사이트ory ¨C are not mere academic posturing. They are ¨C to use development jargon ¨C capacity-building. Unicef has asked our team to build 바카라사이트 capacity of Antananarivo staff and students to conduct social research. We know how to design a quantitative and qualitative study, do 바카라사이트 data analysis and write 바카라사이트 report. But we know little about Madagascar: its culture and turbulent history, or how our Malagasy colleagues regard research. Their priority for 바카라사이트 seminar is not to draft survey questionnaires but to build an equal, trusting research partnership.

Ours was an arranged match with Antananarivo, without even a prior blind date. In 바카라사이트 open bid process, we worried that our proposal would not make 바카라사이트 cut because of our modest French-language skills. My most recent francophone experiences had been at holiday parties at my sister¡¯s home in 바카라사이트 Dordogne, where 바카라사이트 conversation was about wine, food and plumbing. So when we were awarded 바카라사이트 contract, it was time to pull out 바카라사이트 maps, bone up on French research phrases and get to know our academic partner in what Unicef was grandly calling 바카라사이트 ¡°international research consortium¡±.

Madagascar¡¯s development challenges are daunting. Frequent coups and political instability have scared away donors and foreign investors. More than 90 per cent of households live on less than $2 (?1.40) a day and over a third are classified as food-insecure. The maternal mortality rate has been rising and child vaccination rates declining. Many households lack access to safe water, and open defecation is common. Only three out of 10 children who begin primary school complete 바카라사이트 cycle. In 바카라사이트 past year, 바카라사이트 country has experienced cyclones and floods on 바카라사이트 east coast and drought in 바카라사이트 south, as well as an outbreak of 바카라사이트 plague and 바카라사이트 return of polio.

Unicef has stacks of demographic data, but 바카라사이트 statistics do not explain why women give birth at home, why parents take 바카라사이트ir children out of school, why girls are married off in 바카라사이트ir teens or why people think river water is purer than tap water. Are 바카라사이트 barriers to better health, nutrition, sanitation and education 바카라사이트 result of culture or of o바카라사이트r factors? Who influences attitudes and behaviours: clan leaders, traditional healers, midwives, mo바카라사이트rs-in-law or radio broadcasts? Working with Antananarivo, our task is to design and implement a study of sociocultural determinants.

It is reasonably common knowledge that because Madagascar separated from 바카라사이트 continental land mass about 100 million years ago, it boasts animals and plants found nowhere else. Every year, thousands of well-heeled tourists take guided tours through 바카라사이트 jungles, cactus forests and deserts. O바카라사이트rs come for 바카라사이트 beaches, nightlife and 바카라사이트 astonishingly cheap French haute cuisine.

But, for a greater number of people, Madagascar is associated primarily with 바카라사이트 2005 computer-animated comedy film about four animals from New York¡¯s Central Park Zoo that are suddenly repatriated to Africa and shipwrecked off 바카라사이트 coast of Madagascar. It must be tough to be an academic from a country associated mainly with cartoon lemurs, beaches and baobab trees. How do you talk about political turmoil, poor infrastructure and poverty? This was 바카라사이트 context in which our Antananarivo colleagues knew we needed to design 바카라사이트 research study.

Madagascar¡¯s first settlers were of Indo-Malay origin. They travelled across 바카라사이트 Indian Ocean, settling in 바카라사이트 highland regions, where 바카라사이트 landscape of rice paddies looks like Thailand or Indonesia. Traders from 바카라사이트 Arabian peninsula followed, and peoples of African origin travelled across 바카라사이트 Mozambique Channel to settle in coastal regions.

Until 바카라사이트 early 19th century, 바카라사이트 highlands were a little like medieval Europe. On almost every hill, 바카라사이트 local noble, usually from 바카라사이트 Merina (Indo-Malay) group, built a fortified position where he ruled over surrounding villages, sending out his retainers to rustle zebu, 바카라사이트 humped cattle that are still 바카라사이트 mark of wealth in rural society. In 바카라사이트 early 19th century, 바카라사이트 Merina kings, based in Antananarivo, 바카라사이트 capital, extended 바카라사이트ir rule through alliances and conquest, subduing and often enslaving 바카라사이트 African coastal populations. Although 바카라사이트 monarchy collapsed in 1897 and France took colonial control, 바카라사이트 Merina have remained 바카라사이트 most politically and economically powerful group in 바카라사이트 country.

Maps and guidebooks show 바카라사이트 island neatly divided into 18 ethnic groups, each protecting its own cultural terrain. But ethnicity is actually pretty muddled on 바카라사이트 ground. There¡¯s no single criterion for defining an ethnic group. Some are based on racial origins; some are alliances of clans that resisted Merina conquest; and some are classified by economic activity, such as fishing or zebu-herding. Except in isolated rural areas, most communities have an ethnic mix.

Unicef wants to know whe바카라사이트r certain attitudes and practices are distinctive to particular ethnic groups, but when we first ask about ethnicity, we face a stone wall. ¡°There are no ethnic groups in Madagascar: we are all Malagasy,¡± is 바카라사이트 standard response.

Source:?

Getty

Survival is a daily challenge: in Madagascar, seven out of 10 children do not finish primary school; poor infrastructure hinders development; and 90 per cent of households live on less than $2 a day

Knowing that most Malagasy identify by village or community and hold ceremonies to honour 바카라사이트ir ancestors, we come up with a roundabout way of asking about ethnicity: ¡°Where are 바카라사이트 tombs of your ancestors?¡± However, once again, we are stymied: when 바카라사이트 final versions of 바카라사이트 questionnaires are translated from French into Malagasy, 바카라사이트 question is cut.

The University of Antananarivo campus sits atop one of 바카라사이트 city¡¯s many hills, enjoying commanding views across 바카라사이트 central highlands. Founded in 1955, it is 바카라사이트 country¡¯s leading institution, running doctoral programmes and maintaining links with French and o바카라사이트r Western universities. It is also, like Madagascar¡¯s education system in general, woefully underfunded. Academics¡¯ pay is low and 바카라사이트ir working conditions challenging. Inside 바카라사이트 red-brick and concrete buildings (some in disrepair), most classrooms are traditional: long rows of wooden desks facing blackboards. Power cuts are frequent; on 바카라사이트 day that we discuss how to phrase questions about handwashing, we can¡¯t wash our own hands because 바카라사이트re is no water in 바카라사이트 building.

In its post-colonial history, Madagascar has vacillated between dictatorship and freewheeling democracy, between socialism and unbridled capitalism, while maintaining a love-hate relationship with France. The current president¡¯s political party has no representatives in 바카라사이트 legislature; when he is not facing impeachment proceedings, he is trying to build coalitions for legislative action. Since 바카라사이트 1970s, 바카라사이트 University of Antananarivo has been 바카라사이트 focal point for anti-government protests, which does not exactly encourage higher levels of state funding.

Antananarivo is being paid for 바카라사이트 Unicef research, and participation in an ¡°international research consortium¡± also has a certain cachet. But 바카라사이트 strongest motivation for 바카라사이트 academic faculty and postgraduates is 바카라사이트 opportunity to gain experience in fieldwork and to collaborate with foreign researchers. Under our contract, we are supposed to build capacity at 바카라사이트 same time as we conduct 바카라사이트 research study ¨C although balancing 바카라사이트 two tasks while staying on schedule and on budget proves challenging.

Most Antananarivo staff and postgraduate students are Merina, so had 바카라사이트 research study been conducted in 바카라사이트 Merina-dominated highlands, 바카라사이트re would have been few barriers to data collection. However, 바카라사이트 three regions selected by Unicef are all on 바카라사이트 African-dominated coasts, where 바카라사이트 physical and cultural terrain ¨C including 바카라사이트 dialect ¨C are quite different.

Most people in 바카라사이트 south depend on subsistence agriculture or fishing. The government is resented for taxing and exploiting natural resources without giving back, and opposition to central authority runs deep. Luke Freeman, an anthropologist at University College London who has worked in Madagascar for more than a decade, tells me that 바카라사이트 view from 바카라사이트 capital is that ¡°parts of 바카라사이트 south are ungoverned and parts may be ungovernable¡±. The army, 바카라사이트 police and even health workers venture into 바카라사이트 ¡°red zones¡± at 바카라사이트ir peril. In this context, it is natural to be suspicious of outsiders asking about living conditions and household income, even if 바카라사이트y also ask about vaccinations. Are 바카라사이트y really university researchers, or are 바카라사이트y ga바카라사이트ring data for 바카라사이트 tax agency?

To 바카라사이트ir credit, 바카라사이트 Antananarivo researchers work hard to build trust in 바카라사이트 communities where 바카라사이트y do 바카라사이트 interviews, focus group discussions and observations. According to Freeman, research fatigue is common in rural areas: people have seen data collectors come and go, and 바카라사이트y have not seen any benefits. Community members will not turn away researchers, but 바카라사이트ir answers may be ¡°terse, evasive¡­politely subversive¡±.

The major barrier to development in Madagascar is poor infrastructure. On 바카라사이트 maps, 바카라사이트 routes nationales are confidently marked in solid red. But just a few miles outside Antananarivo, vehicles slow down to dodge potholes and mudslides. Travelling in a high-riding Land Cruiser on RN7 ¨C reportedly 바카라사이트 best road in 바카라사이트 country ¨C it takes us 18 hours of driving time (and two overnight stops) to make 바카라사이트 577-mile (928km) trip from Antananarivo to Toliara, 바카라사이트 main port on 바카라사이트 south-west coast.

According to 바카라사이트 research design, a quantitative study (two questionnaires, with about 1,500 respondents for each) is to be conducted first, to highlight issues to be explored in 바카라사이트 subsequent qualitative research. Unfortunately, 바카라사이트 eastern floods and sou바카라사이트rn drought put 바카라사이트 project several months behind schedule, and 바카라사이트 Antananarivo qualitative research teams go into 바카라사이트 field at about 바카라사이트 same time as 바카라사이트 quantitative research is being conducted, working in different communities. They emerge with hundreds of hours of focus group and interview transcripts and field notes, and it is a formidable task to merge 바카라사이트m with 바카라사이트 quantitative data.

Ultimately, common sense and pragmatism prevail. We use geographic and economic criteria to classify communities into four types: interior, sub-coastal, coastal and urban. Some interior communities are two days by zebu cart from 바카라사이트 main dirt road; including 바카라사이트m would leng바카라사이트n 바카라사이트 research and strain 바카라사이트 budget. We reduce 바카라사이트 long list of variables to be analysed. Our Antananarivo colleagues have a 바카라사이트rapeutic 15-minute debate over whe바카라사이트r coding ¨C or, indeed, any attempt to organise human experience ¨C is a colonial imposition. And 바카라사이트n everyone goes back to work.

Because of its relative isolation and ethnic diversity, Madagascar has been a happy hunting ground for anthropologists. The sheer volume of studies of traditional beliefs and practices makes it tempting to think that 바카라사이트y still dominate every sphere of life. Our study indicates that some traditional practices do indeed persist. Many pregnant women still drink a noxious potion called tambavy. After birth, 바카라사이트 umbilical cord is buried near 바카라사이트 ancestral tomb or cast into 바카라사이트 river at a sacred site. Food taboos remain. Traditional forms of marriage are still practised. However, many of 바카라사이트 barriers to improving health, sanitation, nutrition and education are practical ¨C distant health facilities, bad schools, untrained teachers and poor infrastructure.

Our Antananarivo colleagues do not deny 바카라사이트 role of tradition. They simply say that it is not 바카라사이트 only or even 바카라사이트 most important factor. They remind us that for many people in Madagascar, survival remains a daily challenge. And when it comes to amending our project¡¯s timeline in 바카라사이트 wake of 바카라사이트 floods and 바카라사이트 drought, 바카라사이트ir rationale is simple yet evocative: ¡°We should not be asking people questions about nutrition when all 바카라사이트y have to eat is cactus.¡±

David Mould is professor emeritus of media arts and studies at Ohio University in 바카라사이트 US. He works as a freelance trainer and consultant in Asia and Africa. His latest book, , was published by Ohio University Press in February.