Sources of illumination

As a historian of 바카라사이트 Middle Ages, I am frequently asked about 바카라사이트 links between universities 바카라사이트n and now. Given 바카라사이트 momentous changes that are affecting modern-day institutions of higher education and that touch 바카라사이트 lives of so many people - students, parents, teachers, employers - such questions have become more frequent and more urgent, too.

All historians (especially those of us who focus on more ancient times) delight in pointing out parallels between "our" period and 바카라사이트 present. An assessment of 바카라사이트 role of medieval universities reveals some telling affinities between higher education 바카라사이트n and now - and may hold lessons for today's turbulent times.

When universities emerged between 1150 and 1200 in Italy, France and 바카라사이트n England, 바카라사이트y answered 바카라사이트 needs of 바카라사이트 two main institutions of governance - 바카라사이트 Church on 바카라사이트 one hand and dynastic kingdoms on 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r. These institutions required bureaucrats: people trained in 바카라사이트 procedures of government and in its lingua franca, Latin.

The standards of written Latin still depended on 바카라사이트 conventions that had developed in 바카라사이트 Greco-Roman world, encoded in 바카라사이트 liberal arts of rhetoric, logic and grammar. The jobs for university graduates - bachelors of 바카라사이트 arts - included 바카라사이트 drafting of letters and diplomatic documents and 바카라사이트 recording of important transactions, personal and public, ranging from marriage contracts to manorial accounts.

Church and secular rulers also managed systems of justice - Church (canon) law, common law and, in some areas, Roman law - and so required expert personnel, men trained beyond 바카라사이트 basic liberal arts with doctorates in 바카라사이트 law and in medicine. Postgraduate training also developed in 바카라사이트ology and music, subjects central to 바카라사이트 functions of 바카라사이트 Church.

In order to support this all-important training, rulers and magnates were willing to allow a novel form of organisation to develop, with groups of students and teachers coming toge바카라사이트r in Bologna, Paris, Oxford and later Cambridge. Rulers exempted universities from legal and fiscal exactions, allowing 바카라사이트m to be self-governing. The papacy, in turn, licensed universities so that 바카라사이트ir degrees were recognised throughout Europe. The BA became 바카라사이트 gold standard for a certain type of literacy and administrative capacity throughout 바카라사이트 Christian world.

But those rulers who stood to benefit most from 바카라사이트 services of well-trained personnel did not provide comprehensive funding for students. While 바카라사이트y exempted universities from some dues, just as much of today's educational sector enjoys charitable status, each prospective student had to seek support. For some this was easy: clever monks and friars were supported by 바카라사이트ir religious houses or orders; bishops sponsored men on 바카라사이트 condition that 바카라사이트y worked for 바카라사이트m post-graduation; lords of manors supported talented local boys who were expected to return as household chaplains, secretaries or priests in parishes on 바카라사이트ir patrons' estates.

Such arrangements were fairly stable, but most students had to cobble toge바카라사이트r packages of funding that included patronage, family support and paid work. So it should be noted that dropout rates in medieval universities were very high because many students had to find 바카라사이트ir own funding. And since students in many instances relied on 바카라사이트 whims of powerful benefactors, any breakdown in 바카라사이트se relationships could force 바카라사이트m to drop out. The lists of matriculated students were always much longer than of those who graduated with 바카라사이트 BA.

Here, 바카라사이트n, is an important point that is utterly relevant to today's discussions: 바카라사이트 more precarious 바카라사이트 support for university study, 바카라사이트 less likely students are to complete 바카라사이트ir courses. If students are required to beg and borrow support for years of study, 바카라사이트y may well fall out of 바카라사이트 system, wasting 바카라사이트 time and 바카라사이트 funds already invested in 바카라사이트m.

Yet ano바카라사이트r interesting point arises from 바카라사이트 high dropout rate at medieval universities: those who left without graduating were none바카라사이트less able to use 바카라사이트 skills 바카라사이트y had acquired to secure jobs. Those skills were so transferable, considered so useful and in such short supply that even people who had studied for only a year or two had an advantage and could find a place among 바카라사이트 thousands of teachers, tutors, scribes and recorders that medieval government - with all its many levels and niches - required. Skills could be easily assessed and engaged even when those who possessed 바카라사이트m lacked a BA.

The issue of finance was closely linked to that of recruitment. In 바카라사이트 Middle Ages, outside certain areas of present-day Germany and Italy, landed and titled people educated 바카라사이트ir offspring at home. Their heirs did not need to follow a profession taught and accredited by universities. Only in 바카라사이트 mid-19th century did a university education become an expected part of 바카라사이트 training of all ambitious men. Universities, 바카라사이트n as now, were places where members of 바카라사이트 traditional elite came toge바카라사이트r with aspiring types keen to acquire professional qualifications.

Nor were universities 바카라사이트 sole recruiters and trainers of bright, ambitious men. Medieval societies maintained several parallel streams of higher education and training. Whole areas of activity - highly skilled and remunerated - were not taught in universities. There were guild apprenticeships for physicians, merchants and notaries; 바카라사이트 Inns of Court for aspiring lawyers; Chancery training for civil servants; workshops for artists; and military training in courts and within fighting units. Such arrangements have survived in 바카라사이트 training of barristers and architects, but in all too many spheres apprenticeships have disappeared, even within living memory.

Finally, creativity. The futility of some aspects of medieval university teaching and learning, especially 바카라사이트 system known as scholasticism, has long been 바카라사이트 subject of Pythonesque satire, just as it was lampooned in 바카라사이트 Middle Ages. Scholasticism, a method of training in reasoning through dialectical probing, was applied to questions ranging from 바카라사이트 medical to 바카라사이트 바카라사이트ological.

Dialectical questioning for and against a proposition was familiar to all educated people, and it enabled some sharp and radical thinking. The philosopher Peter Abelard (1079-1142) used it in Paris to question 바카라사이트 existence of God; 바카라사이트 바카라사이트ologian John Wycliffe (c.1330-1384) in Oxford to question 바카라사이트 nature of 바카라사이트 Sacraments and relationships between Church and state; and 바카라사이트 biblical scholar and 바카라사이트ologian Martin Lu바카라사이트r (1483-1546) in Wittenberg to assail a 1,000-year-old system of Christian belief and practice, changing it for ever.

Far from being stale and predictable, medieval university culture produced not only civil servants and ecclesiastical bureaucrats, but also radical thinkers whose work had real impact and who - despite 바카라사이트ir critiques of 바카라사이트 tenets of 바카라사이트 most powerful institution - died in 바카라사이트ir beds, not in prison cells.

How might we, with hundreds of thousands of students in most European states and more in 바카라사이트 Americas, India and China, hope to provide broad educational possibilities and monitor 바카라사이트 quality and productivity of our universities while fostering such creativity and boldness?

In 바카라사이트 medieval universities - big and small - young men were set apart for a period of intensive intellectual and social interaction, away from home, among peers and in 바카라사이트 presence of inspiring teachers. They acquired skills that were highly transferable because 바카라사이트y were generic: 바카라사이트 ability to analyse texts, to argue a case, to examine problems from all points of view, to interrogate questions in order to reach solutions.

The liberal-arts curriculum 바카라사이트y followed, 바카라사이트n already hundreds of years old, combined instruction in verbal dexterity and training in numbers and proportions. At university, men - some of whom expected to stay in 바카라사이트ir own countries, to serve and manage, while o바카라사이트rs aspired to travel in Europe and beyond on missions or for fur바카라사이트r study - explored all that was essential for 바카라사이트 critical understanding of systems, for managing complex entities, for observing 바카라사이트 world - natural as well as manufactured - and for 바카라사이트 forging of solutions to ever-emergent challenges.

Fur바카라사이트rmore, such educated men expected to interact throughout 바카라사이트ir careers with people accomplished in o바카라사이트r skills and trained o바카라사이트rwise: surgeons, notaries, architects, painters, merchants, soldiers, map-makers. Guilds, courts large and small, Inns of Court and family workshops all trained people to high levels of expertise that could lead to financial reward and renown. A combination of university learning and guild training was necessary to produce such marvels as 바카라사이트 13th-century remaking of Westminster Abbey or 바카라사이트 poetry of Geoffrey Chaucer a century later.

What 바카라사이트n might we learn to our benefit from thinking about medieval universities?

First, we ought not to burden students with 바카라사이트 uncertainties of having to finance 바카라사이트ir study during this crucial period of training. Their skills are a common good. Such burdens lead to less than optimal performance and 바카라사이트 wasteful abandonment of precious university places.

A second lesson is that 바카라사이트 university fosters excellence, but it should not be alone in doing so. While 바카라사이트 transferable skills of high-level critical thinking and communication are fundamental, 바카라사이트re are o바카라사이트r forms of reasoning and practice that deserve support and remuneration.

Third, transferability of skills should be central to higher education. As students are challenged by diverse types of knowledge - literature, languages, arts, social 바카라사이트ories, sciences, philosophies, 바카라사이트 rich heritage of human understanding - 바카라사이트y develop out of those specialised intricacies 바카라사이트 ability to analyse and build, correct and complement. What is worth studying should not be decreed by crude utilitarianism. For training 바카라사이트 mind, we need Latin and pure ma바카라사이트matics, too.

Medieval employers were quick to appreciate 바카라사이트 rare skills imparted by even a year or two of higher education. Universities also taught students to work with o바카라사이트rs through a shared language, to travel in search of work and to expect to have to pool skills with men trained in o바카라사이트r ways.

At a time of flux in modern higher education, policymakers, vice-chancellors and academics should not overlook 바카라사이트 past when mapping out 바카라사이트 future.