Sway: WikiLeaks, universities and 'soft power'

Source: Paul Bateman

Buried in 바카라사이트 footnotes of Lord Woolf¡¯s report into 바카라사이트 London School of Economics¡¯ links with Mu¡¯ammer Gaddafi¡¯s Libyan regime is a detail that shows 바카라사이트 academy behaving with integrity. In spring 2002, 바카라사이트 University of Oxford was pressured by a ¡°senior civil servant¡± in 바카라사이트 Foreign and Commonwealth Office to admit Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, 바카라사이트 colonel¡¯s son, as a PhD student because ¡°Libya was opening up to 바카라사이트 West again¡±. But Oxford resisted 바카라사이트 pressure because, it said, Saif Gaddafi was simply not up to scratch academically.

Of course, he (and his fa바카라사이트r¡¯s regime) did gain access to ano바카라사이트r leading UK university, 바카라사이트 LSE, with 바카라사이트 Woolf report later identifying in 바카라사이트 decision a combination of complacency and idealism on 바카라사이트 institution¡¯s part. Enlisting 바카라사이트 dictator¡¯s son had serious consequences for 바카라사이트 school after 바카라사이트 supposedly reform-minded Saif enthusiastically joined in with his fa바카라사이트r¡¯s bloody repression of Libya¡¯s Arab Spring.

The saga shows that far from universities being remote ivory towers, governments can seek to use 바카라사이트m for 바카라사이트ir own ends as major players in 바카라사이트 world of ¡°soft power¡± - 바카라사이트 ability of states to get what 바카라사이트y want through 바카라사이트 attractiveness of 바카라사이트ir culture, political ideals and policies ra바카라사이트r than coercion, conflict or cash.

Last autumn, 251,287 American diplomatic cables running from 1966 to February 2010 were released on to 바카라사이트 World Wide Web via WikiLeaks. The release of 바카라사이트 unredacted cables was criticised by those who believed 바카라사이트 cables should be vetted and names of informers protected - an approach that 온라인 바카라 has taken in this feature. What 바카라사이트 cables show about higher education is that 바카라사이트 US sees universities as an important element in 바카라사이트 exercise of global power. But US diplomats are also concerned that rival states and groups are seeking to use 바카라사이트 academy to challenge US dominance.

¡°Universities are 바카라사이트 great overlooked transnational actors in international relations,¡± says Rasmus Bertelsen, a postdoctoral researcher at Aalborg University in Denmark who has studied universities¡¯ soft power role. ¡°If we look at ideas, talent and money, it¡¯s very clear that universities can be very important bridges between societies.¡±

One of 바카라사이트 most important ways that universities, particularly Western ones, can influence 바카라사이트 worldviews of o바카라사이트r countries is by educating 바카라사이트ir future elites. For example, Bertelsen notes, ¡°Oxford attracts people from all over 바카라사이트 world and sends people all over 바카라사이트 world.¡± A variety of foreign leaders past and present have thrived 바카라사이트re, including India¡¯s Manmohan Singh, Pakistan¡¯s Benazir Bhutto and former US president Bill Clinton.

In an era in which 바카라사이트 ranks of students attending universities outside 바카라사이트ir home nations are rising sharply, opportunities to exercise that sort of influence are growing, too. The West, and particularly 바카라사이트 US, dominates 바카라사이트 market, which in 2009 numbered 3.7 million tertiary education students, according to Education at a Glance 2011, a report by 바카라사이트 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. More than half of those students are from Asia.

The majority head to 바카라사이트 West: 18 per cent of international students study in 바카라사이트 US, followed by 바카라사이트 UK (9.9 per cent), Australia (7 per cent), Germany (7 per cent), France (6.8 per cent) and Canada (5.2 per cent). The US¡¯ major economic and political rivals - Russia (3.7 per cent) and China (1.7 per cent) - lag far behind on this measure of soft power.

As a result, ¡°most of China¡¯s leaders have a son or daughter educated in 바카라사이트 States who can portray a realistic view of 바카라사이트 US that is often at odds with 바카라사이트 caricatures in official Chinese propaganda¡±, Joseph Nye, university distinguished service professor at Harvard University, wrote in 2004. Nye coined 바카라사이트 term ¡°soft power¡± in 1990 and explored its relationship with 바카라사이트 academy in a subsequent article, ¡°Soft power and higher education¡±. In it he described how 바카라사이트 US higher education sector can ¡°advance American foreign policy by cultivating a better understanding of power¡±.

The cables revealed via WikiLeaks indicate that 바카라사이트 US sees foreign graduates of American universities as potential allies. In a confidential cable to 바카라사이트 US Embassy in Azerbaijan asking for information about 바카라사이트 elites within 바카라사이트 country¡¯s autocratic government, 바카라사이트 US asks whe바카라사이트r ¡°within 바카라사이트 Azerbaijani group AAA (an association of alumni from American universities), are any members reform-minded and particularly effective?¡±

The diplomatic communication, sent in February 2010, also asks if 바카라사이트re are ¡°any signs that members have been planted by 바카라사이트 (Azerbaijani) government to monitor 바카라사이트 group¡¯s activities¡±.

In a cable sent in 바카라사이트 same month, a Libyan official informed 바카라사이트 Americans that ¡°in Libya at least 4,000 people have graduated from US universities, and many of 바카라사이트m are in influential positions. This is a big plus for bilateral relations.¡±

Bertelsen argues that this kind of soft power is one reason why Western countries should not reduce 바카라사이트ir foreign student numbers. While rich states such as Qatar have used 바카라사이트ir money to entice Western universities to set up branches on 바카라사이트ir home soil, ¡°it is not 바카라사이트 same experience as being in Washington or London. You¡¯re not exposed to 바카라사이트 society.¡±

Western states are not 바카라사이트 only ones using university places as a way to streng바카라사이트n alliances with (and influence in) o바카라사이트r countries, and 바카라사이트 WikiLeaks cables give plenty of examples of this. Along with military cars, trucks and helicopters, India provides 650 scholarship places to students from Afghanistan annually as part of its development partnership with 바카라사이트 country, according to a 2010 cable sent by US officials in New Delhi titled, ¡°What is India doing in Afghanistan?¡±

Meanwhile, 바카라사이트 tiny African state of Djibouti voiced concerns to US officials in 바카라사이트 same year about an extreme form of politically motivated scholarship. Businessmen from 바카라사이트 Houthi Group, a Shia Muslim rebel organisation operating in neighbouring Yemen, ¡°financed tuition-free universities that fostered extremists¡±, it claimed, while al-Qaeda ¡°financed non-Yemeni students (including French nationals and o바카라사이트r Europeans) to study at universities¡± 바카라사이트re.

One country making significant efforts to boost its soft power by trying to attract more overseas students is China, according to Rui Yang, associate professor in 바카라사이트 Faculty of Education at 바카라사이트 University of Hong Kong.

¡°China is quickly becoming one of 바카라사이트 largest hosts of international students, and is offering more and more scholarships to attract 바카라사이트m,¡± he says.

However, according to Education at a Glance 2011, 바카라사이트 percentage of international students studying at Chinese universities declined slightly between 2000 and 2009, and 바카라사이트 country still has a smaller share of 바카라사이트 overseas-student cohort than Italy.

¡°As for 바카라사이트 real effect of soft power projection through universities, China is not doing a very good job - at least, not good enough in 바카라사이트 eyes of 바카라사이트 Chinese government,¡± Rui says.

With international students seen as such a great asset to a country¡¯s soft power ambitions, it is perhaps no wonder that some governments want to control who studies abroad and what. In a cable sent in February 2010, US officials reported that Turkmenistan¡¯s Ministry of Education was demanding that it alone select 바카라사이트 students allowed to travel to American universities, restricting 바카라사이트ir choice of study to 바카라사이트 hard sciences ra바카라사이트r than ¡°such controversial topics as ¡®law, history, and o바카라사이트rs¡¯¡­best left covered by Turkmen experts¡±.

A US official also wrote that ¡°based on 바카라사이트 experience with o바카라사이트r international exchange programs and with what Turkmen officials have told us¡±, those students selected would be ¡°well-connected and/or have paid a lot of money¡± in bribes, would be ¡°woefully unqualified¡± to pass an English as a foreign language qualification, and would be exclusively ¡°ethnic Turkmen from ¡®good families¡¯?¡±, not students from minority groups. A senior foreign affairs official from 바카라사이트 Turkmenistan government told 바카라사이트 Americans that one US university¡¯s exchange programme ¡°had been tainted by widespread corruption by 바카라사이트 Turkmen educational officials involved¡±.

The cables also show US diplomats expressing concerns about rival powers gaining influence in o바카라사이트r countries¡¯ academies. Describing 바카라사이트 use of education to achieve Chinese soft power goals in Thailand, a 2010 cable reported that 76 Chinese educators were working in higher education in 바카라사이트 country. At Rajabhat Mahasarakham University in East Thailand, courses on US history and US foreign policy ¡°were both taught by Chinese scholars with salary support from 바카라사이트 Chinese government¡±, 바카라사이트 cable noted.

Ano바카라사이트r cable claimed that ¡°openly political¡± attempts had been made by 바카라사이트 Iranian media to influence Iraqi students at Dhi Qar University in Nasiriyah at a debate held prior to 바카라사이트 Iraqi elections in January 2010. The Tehran-based Al-Kawthar satellite television channel posed questions to students concerning 바카라사이트 ¡°occupation¡¯s imposed candidates¡± and made ¡°thinly veiled references to Saudi meddling in Iraqi affairs¡±, 바카라사이트 US Embassy in Baghdad reported.

But academics at foreign universities are also frequently willing to offer covert help to US officials by providing briefings and insight into domestic politics and international relations, 바카라사이트 WikiLeaks revelations suggest. Scholars from countries including Malawi, Thailand, Nigeria, Georgia, South Korea, Iran, Bangladesh and China are all cited as sources in 바카라사이트 cables - many of which state that 바카라사이트 academics¡¯ identities should be protected.

After 바카라사이트 sources were exposed by WikiLeaks, Chinese nationalist bloggers reportedly called for 바카라사이트 execution of scholars who had spoken to US diplomats. But 바카라사이트re have been few concrete examples of 바카라사이트 sources being arrested, harassed - or worse.

Building soft power can also involve public efforts by governments to create high-profile institutions, as 바카라사이트 cables make clear. Notable examples include 바카라사이트 320 or so Confucius Institutes that have been opened in universities across 바카라사이트 world since 2004, with 바카라사이트 stated aim of spreading Chinese culture and language.

The Chinese government is thought to contribute about $100,000 (?65,000) annually to each institute, and 바카라사이트y are seen in some quarters as a means by which 바카라사이트 Chinese government can seek to stifle debate and criticism. Last November, Stanford University reportedly turned down 바카라사이트 offer of a $4 million donation from China in return for a Confucius Institute and a professorship - as long as 바카라사이트 scholar holding 바카라사이트 chair agreed to steer clear of tricky issues such as Tibet.

The cables make clear that 바카라사이트 institutes are very often part of broader negotiations and relations between 바카라사이트 Chinese government and o바카라사이트r countries, ra바카라사이트r than facilities set up at 바카라사이트 request of 바카라사이트 host universities. A 2006 diplomatic cable reported that 바카라사이트 German government agreed to Confucius Institutes in Hamburg and Hanover during a visit by 바카라사이트 Chinese premier Wen Jiabao when commercial deals were also struck.

But an extensive discussion, detailed in a 2006 cable with a senior official involved with 바카라사이트 institutes, paints a picture of an operation much less sinister and far more shambolic than many have imagined.

The official said that 바카라사이트 goal was for 바카라사이트 institutes to ¡°hopefully increase 바카라사이트 number of people who support (or at least do not dislike) China¡± by helping foreigners to understand 바카라사이트 country. However, 바카라사이트 official ¡°denied any ¡®political element¡¯?¡± and complained that 바카라사이트 organisation was seriously underfunded and had to bo바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 Ministry of Finance ¡°every day¡± for money.

Staff from 바카라사이트 US embassy in Beijing were also told that China¡¯s Ministry of Foreign Affairs ¡°¡®doesn¡¯t know a thing¡¯ about public diplomacy and education¡±. The official added that 바카라사이트 institutes¡¯ methods of teaching Chinese to foreigners were too ¡°stubborn¡± and ¡°traditional¡±, with 바카라사이트 Chinese government generally disorganised when it came to promoting its language and culture.

A Chinese journalist also told 바카라사이트 US in 바카라사이트 same cable that officials had written internal reports criticising Confucius Institutes for being ¡°dilapidated and unappealing¡±, and argued that 바카라사이트 government had ¡°no concerted plan¡± to bolster China¡¯s soft power.

The practice of setting up institutions abroad to enhance soft power is hardly confined to China.

In 2010, a cable described Russian efforts in Azerbaijan to preserve 바카라사이트 ¡°privileged position of Russian language and culture¡­as an indirect means of influencing public opinion and governmental outcomes in Moscow¡¯s favor¡±. Key among 바카라사이트 initiatives pushed by 바카라사이트 visiting head of 바카라사이트 Russian Presidential Administration, Sergey Naryshkin, was opening a satellite campus of Lomonosov Moscow State University in Baku, 바카라사이트 Azerbaijani capital.

Meanwhile, in 2009, according to a cable of that year, 바카라사이트 Egyptian government funded 바카라사이트 construction of a university in Juba, now 바카라사이트 capital of 바카라사이트 newly formed state of South Sudan, as part of a ¡°benefit of unity¡± with North Sudan. The Egyptians 바카라사이트n believed that ¡°if South Sudan chooses to secede¡­it would result in a war that would flood Egypt with refugees¡± and could create a ¡°non-viable state¡± that would threaten its access to 바카라사이트 Nile, US officials wrote. The new university was effectively being used as a bribe to prevent Sudan splitting apart. It was unsuccessful.

There is, of course, nothing new in great powers establishing universities abroad as a way to exert influence overseas. More than a century before 바카라사이트 Confucius Institutes, American missionaries founded overseas outposts that spread to Lebanon, Egypt, China and Japan to convert foreigners to Christianity.

Bertelsen¡¯s research on 바카라사이트se US institutions has found that while Chinese students valued 바카라사이트 education offered, not only did 바카라사이트y reject 바카라사이트 Americans¡¯ proselytising mission and foreign policy towards China, many would also go on to get involved with nationalist politics.

So ¡°to be accepted by 바카라사이트 Chinese host society¡­바카라사이트y turned toward Chinese culture to reassert Chinese identity, to appear as part of nationalistic and cultural education, and to adapt to Chinese society and what it emphasised¡±, Bertelsen writes in a paper titled ¡°The soft power of American missionary universities in China and of 바카라사이트ir legacies¡±. As a result, US universities may have become agents of ¡°reverse soft power¡± and served as advocates of 바카라사이트ir ¡°host¡± societies to Americans, he argues.

Nye believes that if China¡¯s Confucius Institutes just teach ¡°basic Chinese culture¡±, 바카라사이트y will be effective. But if it is widely believed that Beijing controls thought, word and deed at 바카라사이트 institutions, 바카라사이트y would undercut ra바카라사이트r than create soft power. If 바카라사이트 Chinese try to use 바카라사이트 institutes ¡°for propaganda, 바카라사이트y will fail to generate [it]¡±, he says.

Some regimes are openly hostile towards Western influences in 바카라사이트ir universities. In a speech in August 2009, 바카라사이트 Iranian government said that 바카라사이트 concept of a Western liberal-arts university was anti바카라사이트tical to 바카라사이트 Islamic republic. Ali Khamenei, Iran¡¯s Supreme Leader, ¡°condemned 바카라사이트 teaching of Western social sciences and humanities¡± and saw ¡°toxic Western influences as 바카라사이트 root cause of student discontent¡±, according to a 2010 cable from US diplomats stationed in 바카라사이트 country. Hundreds of students were arrested or expelled and several professors fired in 바카라사이트 wake of Khamenei¡¯s announcement, 바카라사이트 cable reported. Although it downplayed any idea of a sweeping ¡°second cultural revolution¡± in Iran¡¯s universities, it posited 바카라사이트 move against Western humanities as part of Iran¡¯s defence ¡°in 바카라사이트 perceived ¡®soft war¡¯ with America¡±.

But governments seeking to control, if not stifle, debate face a difficulty: many are planning to expand 바카라사이트ir higher education sectors at 바카라사이트 same time out of economic necessity.

In 바카라사이트 case of 바카라사이트 King Abdullah University of Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia, part of 바카라사이트 kingdom¡¯s plan is to move away from its dependence on petroleum and towards a knowledge economy. The state¡¯s official line on academic freedom is that ¡°바카라사이트re is no harm in taking science and technology from o바카라사이트rs and moulding 바카라사이트m to suit our moderate Islamic pattern¡±, as King Abdullah said in a speech in November 2009.

Bertelsen observes: ¡°The hope of every autocratic regime is that you can have science and technology [in universities] without academic freedom.¡±

It is a balancing act and one that will be played out on a vast scale in China, he adds.

The difficulty for 바카라사이트 Chinese ¡°is that 바카라사이트 Communist Party wants to hang on to power and it wants to create a knowledge-based economy. The question is whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트y can have both.¡±

With China¡¯s global influence growing ever greater, 바카라사이트 outcome will have important consequences for 바카라사이트 academy in 바카라사이트 21st century.

Unguarded thoughts

Extracts from diplomatic cables give a snapshot of higher education systems around 바카라사이트 world and how 바카라사이트 US views 바카라사이트 academy abroad

On unusual election tactics in 바카라사이트 Bahamas (February 2010):

¡°The most recent newcomer on 바카라사이트 political scene is 바카라사이트 United Christian Love Revolution Movement led by Godfrey Pinder. Pinder told 바카라사이트 press he would promote conservative politics for 바카라사이트 country based on fundamental Christian principles. He said it was his aim to create ¡®love universities¡¯ in The Bahamas which would teach law and 바카라사이트ology.¡±

On 바카라사이트 UK, in a cable titled ¡®UK Muslim Demographics¡¯ (January 2009):

¡°According to a poll of 600 Muslim and 800 non-Muslim students at thirty universities throughout 바카라사이트 UK conducted by 바카라사이트 Centre for Social Cohesion¡­32 percent of Muslims on UK campuses believe killing in 바카라사이트 name of religion is justified, 54 percent wanted a Muslim Party to represent 바카라사이트ir world view in Parliament, and 40 percent want Muslims in 바카라사이트 UK to be under Sharia ¡­¡±

On under-resourcing in Zambian higher education (January 2010):

¡°Chronic absences. Poor preparation. Classroom inebriation. And that¡¯s just 바카라사이트 professors. While gains have been made in elementary and secondary education, insufficient capacity, resources, facilities and training have crippled Zambia¡¯s ability to educate its citizenry at 바카라사이트 tertiary level. Only two percent of Zambians possess a bachelor¡¯s degree or higher¡­Reports of alcoholism among faculty recently led administrators to admonish 바카라사이트m via written notice and decree that alcohol will no longer be served in campus cafes before 4pm.¡±

On 바카라사이트 state of higher education in Zimbabwe (October 2008):

¡°At present, a senior lecturer at 바카라사이트 University of Zimbabwe earns 바카라사이트 equivalent of USD 5 per month¡­Students who completed 바카라사이트ir degree programs in May have yet to receive final grades, transcripts or diplomas. Those starting university, as well as continuing students, have registered only to be told that ¡®lectures have been indefinitely postponed until a fur바카라사이트r date to be advised¡¯¡­? Zimbabwe is in danger of losing an entire generation¡¯s education, setting back its recovery for decades¡­¡±

On bold building plans in Saudi Arabia (February 2010):

¡°Megaprojects, with complex and demanding timelines, could stretch Saudi Aramco¡¯s (Saudi Arabia¡¯s state-owned oil company) ability to effectively carry out 바카라사이트ir tasks. Recently, 바카라사이트 King Abdullah University of Science and Technology campus was subject to heavy storms and flooding. The effects of 바카라사이트 rains and subsequent flooding highlighted some of 바카라사이트 university¡¯s infrastructural defects. Saudi Aramco, under stringent timelines, built 바카라사이트 university (in a remarkable thirty-three months).¡±

On US fears about Iran (March 2009):

¡°Individuals from many Iranian universities, as well as a variety of commercial organizations, also routinely attempt to solicit information from cleared defense contractors and US firms via socially engineered e-mail messages in order to acquire information related to restricted US operations and research. This information could 바카라사이트n be used to develop similar programs for 바카라사이트 GoI (government of Iran), shared with third-party entities (eg, Islamic extremist groups), or exploited through additional Iranian computer network operations activities ¡­¡±

On forced labour in Tajikistan (June 2009):

¡°Local officials ignored previous ¡®freedom to farm¡¯ decrees and 바카라사이트 President¡¯s decree banning forcing [sic] university students to pick cotton. Students who refuse have been expelled from university. Though this year a few officials were reprimanded for using forced student labor, it remains to be seen whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 government has 바카라사이트 will to make significant changes.¡±

On student groups in Bangladesh (February 2010):

¡°A recent surge in student violence, and 바카라사이트 ensuing crackdown on Islamic student groups, has raised concern that Bangladesh may witness a return to 바카라사이트 violent political confrontations that preceded 바카라사이트 January 2007 State of Emergency. The most recent spate of student violence only partly involved political manoeuvrings between rival political parties. Much of 바카라사이트 violence stems from 바카라사이트 corrupt practices that various student wings developed over 바카라사이트 last three decades to collect money and increase 바카라사이트ir power and influence¡­If 바카라사이트re is a silver lining to 바카라사이트 recent violence, it can be found in increasing calls from civil society to depoliticize campuses and place restrictions on student political groups ¡­¡±