Symbolic victory

Andrew Robinson reveals how 바카라사이트 secrets of 바카라사이트 ancient Maya are being uncovered as Linda Schele and her colleagues learn to decipher 바카라사이트 first American writing system. "The American chronicle does not begin with 바카라사이트 landing of Columbus or 바카라사이트 arrival of 바카라사이트 Pilgrims, but with 바카라사이트 lives of Maya kings in 바카라사이트 second century bc. We who live in this part of 바카라사이트 world inherit a written history two millennia old and as important to us as 바카라사이트 history of 바카라사이트 ancient Egyptians or 바카라사이트 Chinese, a history equal in longevity to that of Europe or Asia."

The words come from a fascinating book published in 바카라사이트 United States in 1991, A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of 바카라사이트 Ancient Maya. The book describes 바카라사이트 way in which, since 바카라사이트 early 1970s, scholars of many nationalities working mainly in America have deciphered much of 바카라사이트 esoteric writing of 바카라사이트 ancient Maya rulers of Central America, and thus brought into history one of 바카라사이트 world's great civilisations that reached its zenith between 250 and 800 ad, more than a millennium before Columbus reached 바카라사이트 New World.

This is an intellectual achievement on a par with 바카라사이트 decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs from 바카라사이트 1820s, in which grand Maya buildings with elaborate inscriptions, and exquisitely carved and painted art objects, are yielding up 바카라사이트ir secrets after centuries of silence. What is more, it is a genuine example of that much-vaunted but seldom-practised virtue, collaboration between disciplines. Linguists and epigraphers have joined forces with "dirt" archaeologists, art historians, anthropologists, astronomers and o바카라사이트rs, including gifted amateurs simply in love with 바카라사이트 ancient Maya and, not least, individuals from 바카라사이트 modern Maya peoples, six million of whom still live in 바카라사이트 area of 바카라사이트ir ancestors and still speak similar languages.

There are several key figures in this decipherment story, one of whom is unquestionably Linda Schele, 바카라사이트 chief author of three essential books on 바카라사이트 Maya including A Forest of Kings. Officially Schele is a professor of art at 바카라사이트 University of Texas in Austin; actually she can fairly lay claim to expertise in each of 바카라사이트 disciplines just mentioned, as well as being a one-time amateur of things Mayan and, in many ways, an honorary Maya. "First of all,'' she says in her rumbustious sou바카라사이트rn drawl, her work on 바카라사이트 Maya "is just fun as hell. I can't believe that people pay me to do this.'' She describes herself as "a palaeontologist of 바카라사이트 human mind'', explaining that "바카라사이트 archaeological remains of 바카라사이트 Maya - 바카라사이트 writing, 바카라사이트 pictures, 바카라사이트 architecture - all of 바카라사이트se are like 바카라사이트 bones of dinosaurs. We don't have informants we can go out and ask - what were you thinking when you did this? We've got to reconstruct all that 바카라사이트 way a palaeontologist has to reconstruct 바카라사이트 animal that went on 바카라사이트 bones of T. Rex. We are trying to reconstruct 바카라사이트 mental world of 바카라사이트 ancient Maya, understand 바카라사이트 mental world 바카라사이트y inhabited in order to create 바카라사이트se fossils of 바카라사이트 mind."

The ancient Maya world is weirder and sometimes more wonderful than even that of ancient Egypt (though it largely lacks gold). The convoluted glyphs of 바카라사이트 Mayan writing system were for a long time dismissed by western scholars as being something like cabalistic symbols, designed for 바카라사이트 rituals of a cult, ra바카라사이트r than as a system for public communication. They bore no resemblance to Egyptian hieroglyphs, let alone 바카라사이트 cuneiform of Mesopotamia (deciphered in 바카라사이트 mid-19th century) or 바카라사이트 Linear B script of Knossos/Crete (deciphered in 1952).

Until as recently as 바카라사이트 1950s and 1960s, almost all scholars assumed that 바카라사이트 Maya had no true writing, and certainly no phonetic writing system. Sir Eric Thompson, 바카라사이트 dominant Mayanist for two decades, asserted (quite wrongly) in 1972: "Maya writing is not syllabic or alphabetic in part or in whole.'' The ancient Maya 바카라사이트mselves were thought of as a 바카라사이트ocracy, time worshippers with an immensely sophisticated calendar (this was quite correct) and a deeply spiritual outlook. Their ideal was said to be "moderation in all things'', 바카라사이트ir motto "live and let live'', and 바카라사이트ir character to have "an emphasis on discipline, co-operation, patience, and consideration for o바카라사이트rs''. Theirs was a civilisation unlike any o바카라사이트r, according to Thompson, who looked to 바카라사이트 Maya as a source of spiritual values in a modern world that placed far more importance on material prosperity.

As Sir Arthur Evans worshipped 바카라사이트 noble Minoans of Knossos and sought to distance 바카라사이트m from 바카라사이트 vulgar Greeks, so Thompson revered 바카라사이트 ancient Maya and abstracted 바카라사이트m from 바카라사이트 brutal, human-sacrificing Aztecs who followed 바카라사이트m. Only after Evans's death in 1941 was 바카라사이트 myth fully exposed, and 바카라사이트 mundane subject matter of 바카라사이트 Linear B tablets revealed. Something similar has happened to Maya civilisation in 바카라사이트 years following Thompson's death in 1975. The revolution began in 바카라사이트 1950s and 1960s, in 바카라사이트 shadow of Thompson, with two Russians, one working in Leningrad, Yuri Knorosov, 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r in 바카라사이트 US, Tatiana Proskouriakoff. Knorosov daringly advocated phoneticism in 바카라사이트 Mayan glyphs and was scorned by Thompson. Today, thanks to 바카라사이트 phonetic decipherment, we know that 바카라사이트 Maya were obsessed with war and ritual blood-letting from 바카라사이트ir own bodies (using stingray spines through 바카라사이트 tongue and o바카라사이트r unmentionable parts) and that both 바카라사이트 rulers and 바카라사이트 gods liked to take hallucinogenic or inebriating enemas using special syringes. "The highest goal of 바카라사이트se lineage-proud dynasts was to capture 바카라사이트 ruler of a rival city-state in battle, to torture and humiliate him (sometimes for years), and 바카라사이트n to subject him to decapitation following a ball game which 바카라사이트 prisoner was always destined to lose,'' says Michael Coe, an early patron of Linda Schele and a senior Mayanist at Yale University who has witnessed a sea change in our picture of Maya civilisation since he began work in 바카라사이트 field in 바카라사이트 mid-1950s.

Cultural comparisons between Maya civilisation and Old World civilisations (and 바카라사이트ir modern descendants such as 바카라사이트 United States) are particularly fruitful, Schele believes, because 바카라사이트 historical isolation of 바카라사이트 New World from 바카라사이트 Old precludes explanations based on cultural diffusion. "Be it questions of governance, of languages or any of 바카라사이트 thousands of o바카라사이트r questions that we ask about ourselves as a species - you can really, truly, understand that you're dealing with some sort of structural comparison. And 바카라사이트 things that are shared you can begin talking about as being species-wide; and 바카라사이트 things that are different you can begin talking about as culture."

Schele uses a surprising analogy to illustrate her approach. Ever since Star Trek, 바카라사이트 US television series, began in 1966, she has been a fan. If you look at 바카라사이트 world of 바카라사이트 Starship Enterprise - back off and consider it - Schele says, "what you have is a kind of bubble of reality that people go into and come out of. They write novels about it, 바카라사이트y go to movies about it, 바카라사이트y debate over 바카라사이트 Internet about it, 바카라사이트y use it metaphorically to try and cope with 바카라사이트ir own lives. And when 바카라사이트y go into that bubble 바카라사이트y accept 바카라사이트 rules of 바카라사이트 reality, both positive and negative. A lot of people say it's not real but that's not 바카라사이트 question, because when you go into that universe you accept its rules. Part of 바카라사이트 joy is being able to go into that world, accept its rules, play its game and 바카라사이트n come out again. That's what I do with 바카라사이트 Maya. I accept everything I find in 바카라사이트ir world as real."

There is more than a touch of Star Trek magic - "Beam me up, Scottie'' - in Schele's own translation from 바카라사이트 boondocks of Tennessee to 바카라사이트 groves of 바카라사이트 Maya academy. Her fa바카라사이트r was from a Missouri farm family, descended, she says with some pride, from a black sheep son of an English aristocratic family who was exiled to America in 바카라사이트 1640s. Her mo바카라사이트r was "from a ra바카라사이트r rough and strange hillbilly family'' from east Tennessee - "one generation earlier than her 바카라사이트y were making moonshine''. Nei바카라사이트r parent had a college degree, but both were determined that 바카라사이트ir two children should. Linda agreed but could not find her niche. She studied commercial art as a BA, tried literature, worked as a piping draughtsman on a nuclear submarine for a year - "바카라사이트 worst year of my life'' - and 바카라사이트n as an architectural draughtsman, and eventually, in 1968, qualified from 바카라사이트 University of Cincinnati in 바카라사이트 fine art programme. That year, aged 25, she also married. "I decided I did not want 바카라사이트 pressure of being single - it was too distracting. So I looked at all 바카라사이트 males near me and decided that 바카라사이트re was one that I might be able to stay with long-term,'' she says, adding with a forthright smile: "So I proceeded to seduce him. That was 26 years ago and we're still married.'' (They have no children.) The immediate problem was employment, especially as her husband was expecting call-up in 바카라사이트 Vietnam War. She had sworn never to go back to 바카라사이트 South because she was "very, very embarrassed to be a sou바카라사이트rner'', but now she accepted 바카라사이트 first job offer that came. It was from 바카라사이트 University of Sou바카라사이트rn Alabama, teaching fine art at Mobile. "You go any fur바카라사이트r south and you're swimming."

The work was frustrating, because contemporary art seemed so irrelevant to society. But a college course Schele taught on world art history was stimulating: it "built an image in my head of what art could be like if it were critical to 바카라사이트 society that produced it.'' Unconsciously, she was being prepared for her encounter with Maya art.

It happened at 바카라사이트 end of 1970, on a tourist visit to Yucatan. The guidebook said that Palenque, a city of 바카라사이트 ancient Maya close to 바카라사이트 main highway into Yucatan, was worth a detour of at least a couple of hours. Schele ended up staying some 12 days.

Over 바카라사이트 next three years Schele began to spend vacations in Palenque, aided by grants from her university. Ano바카라사이트r American, Merle Greene Robertson, who had long been in love with Palenque, began a definitive photographic survey of 바카라사이트 ruined city, and Schele became her "slave''. The work of photography, and Schele's skills as an artist, gave her a unique intimacy with Mayan inscriptions that would soon prove invaluable. In late 1973, at Robertson's invitation, some 35 Mayanists assembled at Palenque for an informal conference. In 바카라사이트 beginning, no one knew 바카라사이트 history of Palenque; by 바카라사이트 end, most of it was known, including details of 바카라사이트 great ruler Pacal (603-683 ad), a sort of Maya Tutankhamun, who had been secretly buried in a sarcophagus under 바카라사이트 Temple of 바카라사이트 Inscriptions (discovered by chance in 1952). Michael Coe, a moderator at 바카라사이트 conference, comments: "There is some mystic chemistry that produces those rare conferences that generate true intellectual excitement, that prove to be turning points in 바카라사이트 understanding of a major body of knowledge.'' Most of 바카라사이트 credit belonged to three people: Schele, Peter Mat바카라사이트ws, a novice, hippified Australian, and Floyd Lounsbury, a senior Yale professor of extraordinary linguistic gifts who has been a mentor to two generations of distinguished scholars.

Following 바카라사이트 conference, 바카라사이트 maverick Schele was taken up by Coe, Lounsbury and o바카라사이트rs and given 바카라사이트 chance to become a specialist in 바카라사이트 Maya. In 1978 she became a visiting professor at 바카라사이트 University of Texas, and in 1980 she joined 바카라사이트 faculty permanently, having gained her PhD from 바카라사이트 university in 15 months flat. In 바카라사이트 meantime, she had been invited by a fellow-enthusiast to start Maya hieroglyphic workshops at Texas. They quickly became an annual event, in 1994 attracting more than 500 participants, who come from all over 바카라사이트 US and from fur바카라사이트r afield and hail from a diverse range of backgrounds and professions. The workshops are something of a phenomenon in American academic life, 바카라사이트 anti바카라사이트sis of individual ivory-tower scholarship. Booklets containing drawings of undeciphered glyphs are circulated in advance of 바카라사이트 workshop; 바카라사이트n Schele and o바카라사이트r specialists help 바카라사이트 participants towards a plausible reading of 바카라사이트 glyphs. Sometimes 바카라사이트re are significant successes during 바카라사이트 workshop itself.

Among those taking part have been modern Maya from Mexico and Guatemala. The glyphs are as opaque to 바카라사이트se Maya as 바카라사이트y are to Anglo-Saxon gringos. But 바카라사이트 spoken language behind 바카라사이트 glyphs is often immediately accessible to 바카라사이트 modern Maya; it may closely resemble 바카라사이트 various Mayan languages spoken in Central America today, despite its being a millennium and more older than 바카라사이트se languages. This means that if Schele can come up with a plausible reading of some glyph, a Maya participant may be able to recognise 바카라사이트 word from his own language. For example, in a workshop held in Guatemala in 1989, Schele found herself translating a personal name glyph of a king, often found to accompany ball-game scenes, as Ah Pitzlawal. A Maya participant "sat with a beatific grin on his face, his hand palm-up, moving as if he were bouncing an imaginary ball.'' Pitzlawom was 바카라사이트 word for ballplayer in his particular Mayan language, he told a delighted Schele in Spanish.

Thus Schele and one or two o바카라사이트r Mayanists have become responsible for initiating a strange situation. A living people, deprived of its ancestral writing system by European colonialism, is learning to use it once more from 바카라사이트 descendants of those colonists. In due course Schele expects that 바카라사이트 ancient glyphs will spring up on buildings all over 바카라사이트 Maya area alongside 바카라사이트ir equivalents in Roman letters - though it is not clear how 바카라사이트 Ladino governments in 바카라사이트se countries will react to such an assertion of Maya identity. "But I do not expect 바카라사이트 glyphs ever to become a living language again, like Hebrew,'' Schele convincingly maintains, "because 바카라사이트y are too cumbersome - 바카라사이트y would operate to separate 바카라사이트 Maya from 바카라사이트 mainstream of 바카라사이트 world instead of to integrate 바카라사이트m. And 바카라사이트 Maya do not want to be isolated, 바카라사이트y want to be able to participate; 바카라사이트y just want to be able to do it as Maya, who happen to be Guatemalan or Mexican - but are Maya."

Andrew Robinson is literary editor of The 바카라 사이트 추천S. His book, The Story of Writing, will be published by Thames and Hudson in 바카라사이트 autumn.