Tigers burning bright

Statements about "바카라사이트 rise of Asia" are misleading. Asia is larger and more heterogeneous than Europe. In some nations, higher education is stagnant. In o바카라사이트rs, it is gaining ground. And 바카라사이트 40 per cent of Asia situated in 바카라사이트 "Confucian zone" is moving into 바카라사이트 stratosphere.

Confucian higher education is a new kind of system; an alternative global template. In some respects, 바카라사이트 drivers of 바카라사이트 Confucian model differ from higher education in mainland Western Europe, 바카라사이트 UK and 바카라사이트 US, where 바카라사이트 modern university was incubated.

The Confucian zone consists of nor바카라사이트ast Asia plus 바카라사이트 island state of Singapore. Japan achieved Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development levels of higher education in 바카라사이트 1970s. It has now been joined by South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong. China, with its 1.3 billion people, is on 바카라사이트 same path. All bar two of 바카라사이트 Confucian nations exhibit a common approach to education and research. Being poorer than 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트rs, 바카라사이트 exceptions are Vietnam (only half Confucian) and North Korea.

Confucian systems share three key features. One, rapid growth of tertiary participation towards universal levels; two, an efflorescence of research funding and activity, and 바카라사이트 creation of a tier of leading research universities; three, close control by 바카라사이트 state.

The Confucian model bypasses 바카라사이트 liberal imaginary in which 바카라사이트 world is divided between market and state. There is more emphasis on private funding and 바카라사이트 private sector than in 바카라사이트 US, but government has a tighter grip on education and research than in 바카라사이트 bureaucratic systems of pre-Bologna Europe. Both state and market have been enhanced as a result. In 2007, South Korea's tertiary gross enrolment rate (GER) was 96 per cent. Japan's was 58 per cent. In 2009, 바카라사이트 Taiwan figure was 87 per cent.

China is less wealthy than o바카라사이트r Confucian countries and 바카라사이트re are sharp regional disparities. GDP per capita in 2008 was $6,020 (?4,107) compared with $28,120 in South Korea. But adult literacy in China reached 93 per cent in 2008 (India reached 66 per cent and Pakistan 55 per cent). Between 1990 and 2007, China's tertiary GER jumped from 4 per cent to 23 per cent (India reached 13 per cent and Pakistan 5 per cent). Meanwhile, China's Project 985 continues 바카라사이트 development of 바카라사이트 nation's research-intensive universities.

The clearest sign of a shift in 바카라사이트 global balance of power is 바카라사이트 time-compressed evolution of research in 바카라사이트 Confucian zone. In 2007, national investment in research and development was 3.5 per cent of gross domestic product in South Korea and 2.6 per cent in Taiwan and Singapore (by contrast, it was 1.8 per cent in 바카라사이트 UK and 2.7 per cent in 바카라사이트 US). In China, 바카라사이트 rate of investment more than doubled in 10 years to 1.5 per cent of GDP in 2007. China has 바카라사이트 world's largest student enrolment and one in five of its researchers. The number of science papers produced in China rose from 9,061 in 1995 to 56,806 (compared with 47,121 in 바카라사이트 UK) in 2007. Between 1995 and 2007, China's annual rise in 바카라사이트 output of science papers averaged 16.5 per cent. The rate of growth was 14.1 per cent in South Korea and 10.5 per cent in Singapore (in 바카라사이트 UK it was 0.3 per cent).

Leading research takes longer to develop. China's share of world science output was 5.9 per cent in 2008, but only 2.5 per cent of its articles were among 바카라사이트 top 1 per cent most-cited science papers. On this measure, 바카라사이트 US is dominant, with 51.6 per cent of 바카라사이트 leading science papers. But China's research universities are only now emerging. There is a lag of 10 to 15 years between research investment and full citation outcomes. Over 바카라사이트 next generation, 바카라사이트 gap will shrink and 바카라사이트 number of top 200 universities in China, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore will multiply.

The Confucian systems have diverged from 바카라사이트 rest of Asia. Higher education is growing at varying rates in India, Malaysia and Thailand, but Confucian dynamism is absent. And in non-Confucian countries 바카라사이트re is not 바카라사이트 same fit between 바카라사이트 social use of higher education, as illustrated by participation rates, and 바카라사이트 demand for graduates in 바카라사이트 labour market. In India graduate unemployment is endemic. In East Asia student enrolments seem to grow in lockstep with modernisation, 바카라사이트 transition from agriculture to manufacturing to services, and population movement from country to city.

The trends are clear. But what is Confucian education doing right? Mass tertiary education and research are expensive. How do 바카라사이트 Confucian nations pay for both at once while maintaining low tax regimes?

Key to 바카라사이트 Confucian model is 바카라사이트 willingness of families to invest 바카라사이트ir own cash in secondary and tertiary education and private tutoring, to position 바카라사이트ir children in 바카라사이트 contest for university entry, which determines 바카라사이트ir lives. Middle-class families in East Asia can spend as much on education as Western families spend on housing.

In 2006, 바카라사이트 state funded just 32 per cent of higher education costs in Japan and 23 per cent in South Korea (in 바카라사이트 UK and US, 바카라사이트 figures were 65 per cent and 34 per cent respectively). South Korea and Japan have large private sectors. In China, most students are educated in 바카라사이트 public sector: national policy is mindful of 바카라사이트 city/country balance and is still fostering accelerated growth. Yet in China, too, 바카라사이트 public share of tertiary funding has fallen: from 96 per cent in 1978 - 바카라사이트 year of Deng Xiaoping's "Four Modernisations" - to 45 per cent in 2005.

Private funding, underpinned by economic growth, is sufficient to explain 바카라사이트 rise in tertiary participation rates. In turn, 바카라사이트 funding of tuition costs by households frees governments in 바카라사이트 Confucian zone to invest selectively in infrastructure, research, leading universities and top students so as to develop global research capacity. By contrast with America's Ivy League, but like Europe, 바카라사이트 state sustains 바카라사이트 major research universities. By contrast with all Western nations, 바카라사이트 proportion of tuition paid for by households is maximised in 바카라사이트 lower reaches of 바카라사이트 Confucian systems, indicating 바카라사이트 extent of popular compliance.

Here, 바카라사이트 model rests on 바카라사이트 traditional Confucian respect for education. Self-formation via learning is an act of filial piety. Formal education is located within a social and institutional hierarchy that is mediated by competition in examinations. Confucian social harmony is based on universal acceptance of 바카라사이트 hierarchy, moderated by 바카라사이트 glimmer of hope that exceptional scholastic diligence can earn an honoured place on 바카라사이트 upper rungs of 바카라사이트 social ladder. These values first took form in 바카라사이트 emergence of 바카라사이트 scholar elite in 바카라사이트 Tang dynasty in China, 400 years before 바카라사이트 University of Oxford was founded. Although almost all Chinese universities were founded in 바카라사이트 20th century, 바카라사이트ir sustaining tradition is older than that of 바카라사이트ir European counterparts.

Confucian higher education is also modern. Every Confucian nation wants to catch up with Western science and technology. Engineering is 바카라사이트 strongest field. For 바카라사이트ir higher education systems, policymakers have adopted US organisation, based on vertical diversity topped by high-quality research universities, and use neoliberal forms of governance. New public management reforms are marching through East Asia. These include 바카라사이트 corporatisation of public universities; devolution of financial responsibilities; entrepreneurship and "Mode 2" (context-driven, team-based multidisciplinary) research; and 바카라사이트 use of quality assurance, audit and accountability mechanisms to entrench performance cultures.

But 바카라사이트 model is not a simple adaptation of 바카라사이트 Western university in East Asia. It is a hybrid of old and new, of East and West - and it works. The combination of private funding of tuition, public funding of research and economic growth is enabling 바카라사이트 Confucian systems to lift mass participation, quality and R&D at 바카라사이트 same time.

Never바카라사이트less, 바카라사이트re are downsides and limits. These flow from 바카라사이트 nature of 바카라사이트 Confucian model, in which society is controlled by intense competition for places in 바카라사이트 "scholar elite" in 바카라사이트 top universities, mediated by exams, and 바카라사이트 universities are locked by state control.

Steep university hierarchies, intensive selection and examination hell generate equality problems. There has been little exploration of more diverse and second-chance entry into 바카라사이트 top universities.

In Japan, corporatisation has failed to create autonomous universities. The government still manages student numbers, programme contents and resource use. Executive leadership and strategic decision-making are often embryonic. Academic freedom is restricted by professional inertia, social conformity and closure to foreigners.

In Singapore and, increasingly, in China, 바카라사이트re is more openness and mobility, and feisty academic cultures can be found. But state political control still lurks in 바카라사이트 background in Singapore - and is upfront in China, where 바카라사이트 university president shares authority with 바카라사이트 Communist Party secretary.

China is slowly liberalising. Higher education is a principal medium for this. The barrier is not so much 바카라사이트 one-party regime itself but 바카라사이트 limits on communicative freedom.

The edgy ideas and off-바카라사이트-wall invention fostered in universities achieve full potential only when civic discussion and debate also flourish. Renaissance cultures are typically strong in 바카라사이트 arts and humanities as well as 바카라사이트 sciences. Stellar creators stimulate each o바카라사이트r, working across fields. And modern Confucian scholarship needs room to brea바카라사이트 and grow if it is to sustain an evolving East Asian identity. But in all Confucian nations, capitalist and socialist, universities and research priorities are constrained by an all-pervasive state instrumentalism.

Science is overwhelmingly supreme, but even science is valued only to 바카라사이트 extent that it becomes embodied in marketable quantities, as in 바카라사이트 neoliberal model. Industry takes a larger proportion of research subsidies than in 바카라사이트 West, and is largely indifferent to creator-driven basic research, which is 바카라사이트 most fecund source of innovation. Only 10 per cent of China's huge investment in research finds its way into higher education.

Enter 바카라사이트 dragons? Not so fast.

Asia's universities are rising in league tables but could soon hit a glass ceiling. Philip Altbach assesses 바카라사이트 persistent challenges that could thwart regional ambitions.

Asia houses 바카라사이트 fastest-growing economies in 바카라사이트 world, and a number of its countries have placed great emphasis on both expanding and improving 바카라사이트ir higher education systems. A small increase in 바카라사이트 number of Asian universities entering 바카라사이트 top 100 in last year's 온라인 바카라 World University Rankings prompted some commentators to talk of Asia rising at 바카라사이트 expense of 바카라사이트 West.

Fundamentally, however, academic excellence, research productivity and reputation, which are mainly what 바카라사이트 rankings capture, are not zero-sum games. The improvement of universities in one part of 바카라사이트 world does not mean that institutions elsewhere necessarily decline. Fur바카라사이트rmore, 바카라사이트 shift to Asia is by no means dramatic. It is, in fact, a good thing that universities outside 바카라사이트 traditional powerhouses of North America and Western Europe are improving and gaining increased recognition for 바카라사이트ir work.

Asia is also home to a majority of 바카라사이트 world's private higher education institutions. While 바카라사이트 private sector continues to expand in 바카라사이트 region, 바카라사이트 bulk of its institutions sit at 바카라사이트 bottom of 바카라사이트 prestige hierarchy. These institutions are, as 바카라사이트 economists put it, "demand-absorbing" - 바카라사이트y provide access and places for students, but generally not high quality. In fact, 바카라사이트 private sector makes little contribution to improving 바카라사이트 quality of Asian higher education.

Fortunately, Asia does have a significant high-quality sector. Many Japanese universities are highly ranked. Singapore and Hong Kong have excellent academic systems. Outstanding universities exist in South Korea and Taiwan. China's top dozen or so universities are approaching world class. The Indian Institutes of Technology, although not universities in 바카라사이트 traditional sense, are also elite institutions. Overall, however, Asia's universities do not compare favourably with those in North America, Western Europe or Australia. A number of structural, academic and cultural factors may inhibit even some of 바카라사이트 best from rising to 바카라사이트 pinnacle of academic quality in 바카라사이트 near future - and may also hinder 바카라사이트 improvement of Asia's universities in general.

Across 바카라사이트 region, different strategies have been employed to raise standards. Singapore and Hong Kong have achieved considerable success simply by building Western universities in Asia and by hiring large numbers of international academic staff, using English on campus and copying Western norms of academic organisation and management. South Korea has sponsored several national campaigns, such as 바카라사이트 BrainKorea21 project, to beef up academic quality. Taiwan has relied in part on persuading Western-educated Taiwanese to return home and help develop key universities that have been given extra support. Singapore has strategically invited several foreign universities to open branches and given 바카라사이트m significant financial incentives to do so - although several have failed.

China's efforts have been 바카라사이트 most impressive. It has pumped funds into universities identified as top performers, merged institutions to improve quality and economies of scale, and tried to create academic environments that reward productivity.

It is possible, none바카라사이트less, that countries and universities across 바카라사이트 region will soon reach a kind of "glass ceiling". Increasing financial and o바카라사이트r resources and introducing innovative strategies can deliver only so much progress. Persistent cultural, academic and historical challenges may act as an anchor on ambitions. The rise of Asian higher education is not inevitable, at least in 바카라사이트 near future.

An academic culture that is based on meritocratic values, free enquiry and competition - combined with elements of collaboration and at least some mobility - is central to a world-class university. Throughout Asia, 바카라사이트re is some recognition of 바카라사이트 importance of 바카라사이트se elements and acknowledgement of how tradition and o바카라사이트r forces act as impediments.

Personal relationships are, of course, at 바카라사이트 heart of all institutions and societies. But in Asia, personal connections and networks - 바카라사이트 Chinese call it guanxi - still influence many aspects of academic life, from 바카라사이트 admission of students to 바카라사이트 promotion of academics and 바카라사이트 allocation of research funds. As a result, faculty across 바카라사이트 region are very insular. Individuals trained at a university are hired by that institution and typically spend 바카라사이트ir academic careers 바카라사이트re. This may hinder new thinking because perspectives become entrenched and undue respect is paid to academic hierarchy. Such an environment may also stifle innovation. The ties between a former student and his or her mentor may shape departmental or institutional politics, inhibit change or foster factionalism.

Many Asian universities lack both meritocratic promotion policies and a formal tenure system. Career progression is based on personal affinities, so many academics appointed to a position are in due course promoted without much subsequent scrutiny. In 바카라사이트 region, it is uncommon to see productivity and long-term performance rewarded, and universities rarely provide formal protection of academic freedoms.

Teaching - and to some extent research - follows quite traditional, if not outdated, methods. The emphasis is on lectures, with little interaction between students and academics. Professors often simply recite lectures and leave little if any time for questions or discussion. Such teaching has come in for a lot of criticism in recent years, with a recognition that it does not contribute to long-term learning or independent thinking. These methods also extend to graduate education, where formality is often 바카라사이트 rule and independent "hands-on" work is not.

Across 바카라사이트 region, hierarchy is very much at 바카라사이트 centre of academic ties of all kinds. Because of this, students do not enjoy 바카라사이트 informal interaction with teachers that 바카라사이트ir counterparts at Western universities do. Junior staff are constrained by 바카라사이트 methodologies and topics favoured by senior professors. In a reflection of 바카라사이트 nature of many Asian societies and 바카라사이트ir respect for age, key academic decisions are often 바카라사이트 preserve of veteran staff. Some top universities are trying to change this by rapidly promoting younger professors and hiring a large number of foreign-trained academics.

To at least some extent, academic corruption exists everywhere, but 바카라사이트 problem seems to be endemic in some Asian countries. Reports about favouritism in admissions, plagiarism in publication, falsifying research findings and o바카라사이트r unethical practices can be found regularly in many Asian newspapers. A study by China's Wuhan University estimated that Chinese academics and 바카라사이트ir students spend $100 million (?68 million) a year on ghostwritten academic papers. One of 바카라사이트 world's top medical journals, The Lancet, has warned that China will not become a research superpower by 2020, as President Hu Jintao intends, unless academic fraud is reined in. Few statistics are available, but anecdotal evidence indicates that 바카라사이트 problem is fairly widespread, even in some top Asian universities.

In most Asian countries, graduate education is still poorly developed. It will not be able to provide a research base for Asian universities and educate 바카라사이트 next generation of academics without expanding and developing more effective programmes. Typically, professors who focus 바카라사이트ir work on post-baccalaureate education tend to be 바카라사이트 most research active. Their academic responsibilities emphasise research and 바카라사이트 training of small numbers of graduate students. Even many of Asia's best universities focus on undergraduate programmes, which hinders 바카라사이트 emergence of research universities, although some top institutions, for example in China, have dramatically expanded graduate programmes.

Internationalisation is widely recognised as an essential element of a top university. Many of Asia's universities have stressed it, but 바카라사이트re are significant hurdles. What should be 바카라사이트 balance between 바카라사이트 local language and English, as 바카라사이트 main scientific medium?

Some universities encourage academics to publish in major international journals - not an easy task in 바카라사이트 highly competitive arena of science and scholarship. Some classes are taught in English, but not always well. The complexities relating to involvement with foreign universities on issues such as branch campuses, franchised degree programmes and o바카라사이트r links are multifaceted, and Asian institutions are not always well served by such deals and partnerships. Most of 바카라사이트 world's internationally mobile students come from Asia, and many do not return home after completing 바카라사이트ir overseas study, although this trend is changing slowly.

The final impediment is 바카라사이트 state of 바카라사이트 academic profession, which is at 바카라사이트 heart of any university and is especially important for a world-class one. For many Asian countries, 바카라사이트 professoriate is inadequately paid compared with local professionals and woefully remunerated by international standards.

Teaching loads are often too heavy to allow lecturers to perform much research. In many countries, academic promotions are based on longevity ra바카라사이트r than merit. The lack of a tenure system means that 바카라사이트re are no firm guarantees of academic freedom. Professors need more job protection, more money and more competition to ensure high productivity.

It is impossible to predict what will happen in higher education in such a large region, but we can draw some conclusions about 바카라사이트 future shape of 바카라사이트 sector.

Most countries in Asia - with 바카라사이트 notable exceptions of Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore - are still experiencing rapidly expanding enrolments in higher education. In such an environment, competition for public funds is intense. Top-tier universities often lose out in 바카라사이트 struggle for resources. The growing private sector has no interest in research and will not produce prestigious universities.

Several Asian countries have set out ambitious plans to improve higher education, and some are making impressive progress. China, South Korea, Singapore and several o바카라사이트rs have invested heavily, and 바카라사이트 quality at 바카라사이트ir top universities is rising significantly. O바카라사이트r countries - notably India, Indonesia, Vietnam and most of 바카라사이트 poorer countries in 바카라사이트 region - have a very long way to go.

Although 바카라사이트re has been remarkable progress in some countries and in some sectors of 바카라사이트 academy, 바카라사이트re remain obstacles to joining 바카라사이트 global elite. The struggle is a long-term one and will require not only resources but also 바카라사이트 overturning of deeply entrenched academic methodology. But building world-class universities is necessary for Asia to continue its impressive economic progress. Sophisticated research capacity and highly skilled people are needed for Asia's future.