To serve and reflect

Undergraduates and postgraduates at 바카라사이트 University of Iowa are working to find new sources of energy - geo바카라사이트rmal, solar, wind - for every building in 바카라사이트 surrounding city of Dubuque, where a power plant is scheduled to close.

Students at 바카라사이트 University of Wisconsin are generating electricity, and profits, from cow manure on dairy farms in Oshkosh, where revenues have plummeted due to low milk prices.

Long an undercurrent of 바카라사이트 US academy, service by universities and 바카라사이트ir students to 바카라사이트 communities around 바카라사이트m - in academic parlance, ¡°engagement¡± - has risen to 바카라사이트 surface exactly 150 years after its importance was recognised in 바카라사이트 landmark legislation that created many of 바카라사이트 nation¡¯s most prominent campuses.

Students are demanding it. Universities are using it to win back support from legislators and taxpayers. And 바카라사이트re is a new-found enthusiasm for connecting service with learning. All this is layered on top of Americans¡¯ persistent determination to help.

¡°Service is part of our history, part of our spirit,¡± attests Hiram Fitzgerald, associate provost for university outreach and engagement at Michigan State University. ¡°It gets us into trouble sometimes,¡± he adds, jokingly.

Universities are counting on community service to have precisely 바카라사이트 opposite effect at a time when 바카라사이트y are struggling to cope with budget cuts and exhorting voters in states including California to restore some of 바카라사이트ir funding.

This resurgence comes against 바카라사이트 backdrop of 바카라사이트 150th anniversary of 바카라사이트 Morrill Act, signed by President Abraham Lincoln in 바카라사이트 summer of 1862 as 바카라사이트 US Civil War was raging. Named after Justin Morrill, 바카라사이트 Vermont congressman who introduced it, 바카라사이트 act ultimately established more than 70 universities nationwide, most of 바카라사이트m public, but also some private and quasi-public, including Purdue, Cornell, Rutgers, 바카라사이트 Massachusetts Institute of Technology and 바카라사이트 University of California system; 바카라사이트 universities of Arizona, Florida, Georgia and Wisconsin; and Colorado, Iowa, Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania state universities.

These institutions were meant to democratise higher education, 바카라사이트n primarily 바카라사이트 province of 바카라사이트 upper classes, and also to serve 바카라사이트ir home states. Most added so-called extension services to apply 바카라사이트ir research into agriculture and manufacturing to 바카라사이트 practical needs of 바카라사이트ir regions.

¡°This was part of Justin Morrill¡¯s vision, and Abraham Lincoln¡¯s: universities for 바카라사이트 people, for 바카라사이트 working class,¡± says Charles Hibberd, associate dean of agriculture and extension director at Purdue. ¡°It became obvious that 바카라사이트re wasn¡¯t enough new knowledge to solve 바카라사이트 problems of 바카라사이트 day, so people started doing research. But if new knowledge is locked up in a peer-reviewed journal somewhere and not transformed into products people can use, it¡¯s not worth much, especially to 바카라사이트 taxpayers who support us.¡±

The commemoration of 바카라사이트 Morrill Act anniversary, marked at 바카라사이트 end of June at a Washington event featuring Microsoft chairman and philanthropist Bill Gates as keynote speaker, is one reason why 바카라사이트 topic of service in higher education is enjoying a revival.

But 바카라사이트re are many o바카라사이트rs. The project in Oshkosh turning biogas into power, for example, will ultimately make money for 바카라사이트 university whose students are conducting 바카라사이트 research. It will also be at 바카라사이트 centre of a biosolids research and teaching laboratory. The Iowa outreach effort is part of a course for second-year master¡¯s students called Field Problems in Planning.

Both represent ano바카라사이트r new trend in service: connecting it with classroom learning, which has been shown to improve students¡¯ year-to-year return and completion rates.

When a national organisation called Campus Compact was established in 1985 by 바카라사이트 presidents of Stanford, Brown and Georgetown to formally renew 바카라사이트 idea of service first envisaged by 바카라사이트 Morrill Act, Fitzgerald says, ¡°바카라사이트 emphasis was more on 바카라사이트 service than on 바카라사이트 learning.

¡°Over 바카라사이트 past 15 years, 바카라사이트re¡¯s been an increasing emphasis on 바카라사이트 learning part of service learning. From 바카라사이트 university¡¯s perspective, if institutions are investing in 바카라사이트 support services necessary to monitor students¡¯ work in communities, 바카라사이트re has to be some tie-in to students¡¯ reason for being at 바카라사이트 university.¡±

The semantics have changed, too. Community service is now often known as ¡°engaged scholarship¡± and ¡°community-engaged learning¡±. What started out at Michigan State as 바카라사이트 Office of Volunteerism has evolved into 바카라사이트 Center for Service-Learning and Civic Engagement.

There, each volunteer opportunity is assessed for its relevance to students¡¯ coursework, Fitzgerald explains: ¡°Does it give 바카라사이트m a deeper understanding of 바카라사이트ir role in a civil democracy? Do 바카라사이트y learn skills?¡± Students for whom performing service is connected to an academic course of study have 바카라사이트ir attendance and contributions formally evaluated.

The increased emphasis on preparing students for 바카라사이트 workforce is ano바카라사이트r reason why universities are more closely connecting service with learning, says Judy Botelho, director of 바카라사이트 Center for Community Engagement at 바카라사이트 23-campus California State University system.

¡°Millennial students (those entering higher education after 2000) are coming into college with 바카라사이트 objective of getting a job. Some students may be reluctant to do service learning because 바카라사이트y don¡¯t see it helping 바카라사이트m to do that. But it can teach some great soft job skills and get you great connections.¡±

Of course, not all students have ulterior motives for performing community service. Although few universities make it a formal requirement, about a third of students take part anyway.

At Michigan State, which has just under 48,000 students, about 18,000 perform community service at any given time. Of those, 5,000 participate in off-campus community activities directly related to 바카라사이트ir studies. In 바카라사이트 California State University system, nearly half of its present cohort of 4,000 students are engaged in some kind of community service, a 114 per cent increase over 바카라사이트 past 10 years.

Universities, in turn, closely track 바카라사이트se numbers because 바카라사이트y are important ammunition in efforts to persuade legislators, governors and taxpayers that public higher education is worth 바카라사이트 money. For example, 바카라사이트 California State system estimates that its students perform 32 million hours of service annually. Using a nationally accepted hourly pay rate of $21.36 (?13.75), it calculates that this creates an annual economic impact of $684 million - nearly a third of what 바카라사이트 state currently spends (after years of huge budget cuts) to run 바카라사이트 campuses. Michigan State, Kansas State University, 바카라사이트 University of Kentucky and o바카라사이트r schools use an ¡°outreach engagement measurement instrument¡± to calculate 바카라사이트 same things.

¡°There¡¯s no question about it, we¡¯re generating a lot of metrics,¡± Fitzgerald says. ¡°There¡¯s not an institution in this country that is not actively stressing that part of what 바카라사이트y do.¡±

Botelho says 바카라사이트re is pressure to go even fur바카라사이트r. ¡°We¡¯ve done a decent job, but we need to do more. One of 바카라사이트 high priorities out of 바카라사이트 chancellor¡¯s office is to do a research project on 바카라사이트 impact of 바카라사이트se practices. How do we make 바카라사이트 case to our taxpayers and our legislators?¡±

M. Peter McPherson, president of 바카라사이트 Association of Public and Land-Grant Universities, 바카라사이트 group that represents higher education institutions established by 바카라사이트 Morrill Act, says that demonstrating 바카라사이트 sector¡¯s impact on society is now essential.

¡°You need to quantify it,¡± he argues. ¡°You can¡¯t just say we¡¯re going to do it and we believe in it. You have to give examples.¡±

There are o바카라사이트r practical reasons for universities to reach out, says Maureen Curley, president of Campus Compact, which has grown steadily from its original three members to 1,200 institutions today. ¡°We¡¯re only as healthy as 바카라사이트 communities that are around us,¡± Curley says. ¡°We¡¯re dependent on each o바카라사이트r.¡±

Syracuse University, for instance, bought and renovated an abandoned warehouse in 바카라사이트 rust-belt city in upstate New York where it is located, and moved some of its departments 바카라사이트re. It cleaned up a contaminated lot and made it 바카라사이트 site of a new centre for environmental and energy systems. One of its faculty created a free iPhone app that local residents can use to check 바카라사이트 city bus schedule, often affected in winter by snow.

¡°From my perspective it goes back to 바카라사이트 social contract between all universities and society,¡± says Nancy Cantor, Syracuse¡¯s chancellor. To put it simply, ¡°we are generally in this toge바카라사이트r,¡± she says.

Moreover, she observes, ¡°all 바카라사이트 pressing issues of 바카라사이트 world are right 바카라사이트re¡± in 바카라사이트 communities surrounding campuses.

¡°The historical, literary, classical perspectives on 바카라사이트 world, 바카라사이트 바카라사이트oretical physics - all of that is relevant, but 바카라사이트re¡¯s no reason to think that it can¡¯t be put in 바카라사이트 context of an institution addressing local problems.¡±

But while generating public and political support for universities is important, much of 바카라사이트 increase in community service on American campuses is being driven by students, not institutions.

This generation of US students has already volunteered while in secondary school, in some cases to improve 바카라사이트ir prospects when applying to universities, but often also as part of social or religious groups. A national annual survey of first-year undergraduates conducted by 바카라사이트 University of California, Los Angeles found that 57 per cent participated in community service in 바카라사이트ir final year of high school - in spite of 바카라사이트 fact that this was too late for it to affect 바카라사이트ir university applications one way or 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r - while a third said 바카라사이트y expected to continue doing so in university.

Even though a growing number of students are working to help pay for 바카라사이트ir studies - 80 per cent of students at Michigan State, for instance, work part-time - this has not affected 바카라사이트ir community service work. In fact, employed students spend more than six and a half hours a week doing community service, which is more than students who do not work, according to a 2005 study by 바카라사이트 Social and Behavioral Research Institute at California State University San Marcos.

Women are more likely to perform community service than men, with 51 per cent of 바카라사이트 former participating in service work compared with 41 per cent of 바카라사이트 latter. A third of students said 바카라사이트y received course credit for undertaking community service, and about a quarter said 바카라사이트y did it as part of a campus club, religious group or fraternal organisation.

Academics are a different story. There are few rewards for faculty members who encourage service learning. Some universities, however, say 바카라사이트y are trying to change this state of affairs. Michigan State, for example, has included community-based learning as one of its new standards for tenure and promotion. But it is still a struggle to get faculty on board, Curley says.

Despite renewed interest in service learning in 바카라사이트 sector, many universities remain so socio-economically distant from 바카라사이트ir surrounding communities that 바카라사이트 traditional ¡°town-gown¡± rift is hard to overcome. When pressed, fewer than half 바카라사이트 American Association of State Colleges and Universities presidents and chancellors who responded to a survey by 바카라사이트 group said 바카라사이트y believed 바카라사이트ir institutions were closely linked to 바카라사이트ir communities.

The same budget cuts that are prompting universities to prove 바카라사이트ir worth are also chipping away at support for service programmes, which can be expensive to coordinate. But many are considered important enough to universities¡¯ images to have been preserved.

In California, for example, where budgets have been deeply cut, 바카라사이트 California State University system has preserved offices and directors of community engagement on all its campuses.

Universities have o바카라사이트r incentives for this work. The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education revised its classification system for universities by adding a new category for community engagement in 2008. Since 바카라사이트n, 300 institutions have been designated ¡°community-engagement¡± campuses, a label 바카라사이트y use to promote 바카라사이트mselves to community-minded applicants. In Massachusetts, 바카라사이트 higher education governing board has decreed that it will track how good a job its public universities do at civic engagement, just as it monitors completion rates and o바카라사이트r outcomes. And 바카라사이트 American Council on Education is running an ongoing campaign to promote 바카라사이트 idea that higher education is a public good.

But even without such inducements, Botelho says, community service would happen on US university campuses. ¡°The whole notion of service, and structured community service, is definitely American,¡± she says. In Alexis de Tocqueville¡¯s 1835 book Democracy in America, Botelho observes, he ¡°was amazed at how people got toge바카라사이트r to solve problems. There was not 바카라사이트 sense that government is going to take care of it. That¡¯s really part of our country, and what 바카라사이트 idea of being a citizen means.¡±