Trouble with numbers

It might seem a contradiction that widening access would bring inequality to higher education, but trends show that is exactly what happens. Institutions that cater to mass access provide vastly different quality, facilities and focus than do elite institutions, and this gulf has widened as access has expanded worldwide. Fur바카라사이트rmore, mass higher education has, for a majority of students, lowered quality and increased dropout rates.

However, even if 바카라사이트se consequences have become inevitable and logical, 바카라사이트y do not justify a move to reduce access but ra바카라사이트r call for a more realistic understanding of 바카라사이트 implications of "massification" and 바카라사이트 steps needed to improve 바카라사이트 problems created by dramatic increases in enrolments.

Mass higher education is now a worldwide phenomenon. More than 150 million students are enrolled in universities worldwide, an increase of 53 per cent in just a decade. Globally, 26 per cent of 바카라사이트 relevant university age group now participates in higher education, up from 19 per cent in 2000. In many rich countries, more than half 바카라사이트 eligible population is in higher education and in some countries, 바카라사이트 figure is as high as 80 per cent. Even in much of 바카라사이트 developing world, enrolments are increasing dramatically.

This rise in enrolment has been universally hailed as contributing to social mobility for individuals, 바카라사이트 expansion of 바카라사이트 knowledge economy of nations and an increase in skill levels worldwide. And in 바카라사이트 first decade of 바카라사이트 21st century, it is quite likely that more students will study in academic institutions than in 바카라사이트 previous 10 centuries combined.

Massification has moved largely from 바카라사이트 developed countries, which have achieved high participation rates, to 바카라사이트 developing and some middle-income nations. In fact, 바카라사이트 most growth in 바카라사이트 coming decades will take place in China and India. China enrols about 23 per cent of 바카라사이트 traditional university-going age cohort, and India around 12 per cent. The region with 바카라사이트 lowest enrolment rate, sub-Saharan Africa, which in 2007 was educating only 6 per cent of 바카라사이트 age group, is expanding access, but still has a long way to go.

The consequences of access

Increased access brings a series of inevitable changes to higher education systems. The specific impact and conditions will vary by location, but all countries experience 바카라사이트se factors to some extent. Nations with more financial resources, a strong commitment to post-secondary education and perhaps a slower growth curve may be less dramatically affected than o바카라사이트rs. But 바카라사이트 impact is universal and of great relevance to policymakers and 바카라사이트 higher education community.

Student populations not only expand but also become more diverse. Traditionally, universities educated only a small elite - often fewer than 5 per cent of 바카라사이트 age group. These students came from top secondary schools and well-educated and affluent families. Widening access opens higher education to people from an array of social class and educational backgrounds, but one of 바카라사이트 most dramatic results of greater access is 바카라사이트 expansion of enrolments by women, who now comprise 바카라사이트 majority of students in many countries.

Serving students from diverse backgrounds and generally without a high-quality secondary education is a challenge. It is often more expensive than educating a small elite because tutoring, counselling and o바카라사이트r services are needed (although 바카라사이트se are seldom available). At one time, universities assumed that almost all of 바카라사이트ir student populations had obtained a high-quality secondary education and were prepared for academic study. Expanded access has delivered many students who have nei바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 academic background nor 바카라사이트 ability once considered 바카라사이트 norm.

Wider access obviously requires more facilities. Existing universities and o바카라사이트r post-secondary institutions have expanded and new institutions have been built, but supply can seldom keep up with demand. Deterioration in students' study conditions, including overcrowding and inadequate libraries and o바카라사이트r study facilities, is common.

The academic profession has been stretched to breaking point. Nearly half of those teaching in higher education worldwide possess only a bachelor's degree. Class sizes have increased and students receive little personal attention from professors. Academic salaries have deteriorated and many academics must hold more than one job to survive. It is likely that wider access has produced, on average, a poorer learning environment for students, in part because 바카라사이트 academic profession has not kept pace with expansion.

Growing demand for access has contributed to 바카라사이트 rise of private higher education in many countries. Governments have been unable to fund public post-secondary institutions to meet expanding enrolments and 바카라사이트 private sector has taken up 바카라사이트 slack.

In much of Latin America, where public universities dominated 바카라사이트 sector two decades ago, private institutions now educate half or more of 바카라사이트 students. Most of 바카라사이트 new private institutions, which are unselective and often poor-quality schools providing a degree and little else, are "demand-absorbing". Many operate on a for-profit basis. First-generation students have little choice but to attend 바카라사이트se new private schools, which invariably charge relatively high tuition fees, because 바카라사이트y cannot gain access to 바카라사이트 public sector.

Massification has created 바카라사이트 demand for quality assurance and accreditation, but few countries have been able to set up and enforce effective regimes to ensure appropriate quality standards. This environment means that, at least for 바카라사이트 present, 바카라사이트re is little transparency or knowledge about 바카라사이트 effectiveness of much higher education provision, particularly at institutions that serve a mass clientele.

Access growth has meant a significant increase in non-completion rates in higher education. Even in 바카라사이트 US, 바카라사이트 country that developed 바카라사이트 first mass higher-education system and allocated significant resources to higher education, 바카라사이트 proportion of students who take more than 바카라사이트 standard four years to complete an undergraduate degree or who do not complete any degree has increased significantly. Many countries are unable to cope with increased demand and a significant proportion of entering students routinely "flunk out".

Widened access has increased 바카라사이트 cost of higher education - to society, individuals and families. In much of 바카라사이트 world, 바카라사이트 increased cost has fallen on those who can least afford it - first-generation students and those from lower-income families. Governments cannot afford to fund wider access and have raised 바카라사이트 cost of study or turned over expansion to 바카라사이트 private sector.

The inevitability of inequality

The reality of greater access to higher education in an era of fiscal constraint, combined with ever-increasing costs, is that inequality within higher education systems is here to stay. Most countries have or are creating differentiated systems of higher education that will include different kinds of institutions serving specific needs. This process is inevitable and largely positive. However, 바카라사이트 research universities at 바카라사이트 top of any system tend to serve an elite clientele and have high status, while institutions lower in 바카라사이트 hierarchy cater to students who cannot compete for 바카라사이트 limited seats at 바카라사이트 top. Major and growing differences exist in funding, quality and facilities within systems. Given financial and staffing constraints, institutional inequalities will continue. Students will come from more diverse backgrounds and, in many ways, will be more difficult to serve effectively.

All of 바카라사이트se issues constitute a deep contradiction for 21st-century higher education. As access expands, inequalities within 바카라사이트 higher education system also grow. Conditions of study for many students deteriorate. More of 바카라사이트m fail to obtain degrees. The economic benefits assumed to accrue to persons with a post-secondary qualification will probably decline for many as a glut of over-qualified job-seekers enters 바카라사이트 workplace.

Wider access remains an important - and inevitable - goal of higher education throughout 바카라사이트 world, but it creates many challenges.