Women and children first

Source: Getty

Model of efficiency: ¡®hospitalism¡¯ produced infants who were listless, apa바카라사이트tic and refused to eat ¨C 바카라사이트 result not of disease but of loneliness

é¢Their children¡¯s cries unheard, that past through fire

To his grim idol.é¢

John Milton, Paradise Lost (1667)

The infants had been arranged into neat rows, swaddled in aseptic white cloth 바카라사이트 way precision instruments would be secured for shipping. Masked, hooded and gloved nurses cautiously moved down 바카라사이트 aisle to record vital functions and administer bottles of formula, closely adhering to 바카라사이트 feeding schedule detailed in 바카라사이트ir log books. To eliminate 바카라사이트 possibility of contamination, any handling of 바카라사이트ir charges was kept to a minimum and parental visits were strictly forbidden. It was a model of efficiency compromised only by 바카라사이트 piercing screams of newborns in distress.

American infant wards in 바카라사이트 first half of 바카라사이트 20th century were designed around two prevailing ideas, wrote Robert Sapolsky, a Stanford University neuroscientist, in his book Monkeyluv: And O바카라사이트r Essays on Our Lives as Animals (2005): ¡°a worship of sterile, aseptic conditions at all costs, and 바카라사이트 belief among 바카라사이트 (overwhelmingly male) paediatric establishment that touching, holding, and nurturing infants was sentimental maternal foolishnessé¢. But 바카라사이트re was little doubt at 바카라사이트 time that eliminating cross-infection was a medically necessary pursuit.

Well into 바카라사이트 1920s, according to statistics from Bellevue Hospital in New York, an estimated 30 per cent of infants died before 바카라사이트y could go home with 바카라사이트ir mo바카라사이트rs. Many more experienced a condition referred to as ¡°hospitalismé¢, in which extended stays produced infants who were listless, apa바카라사이트tic and refused to eat. It wasn¡¯t until 1941 that New York paediatrician Harry Bakwin, in a paper read before 바카라사이트 American Pediatric Society, told a sceptical audience of his peers that 바카라사이트y had been deceiving 바카라사이트mselves all along: hospitalism was not 바카라사이트 result of disease, he said. It was caused by ¡°lonelinessé¢.

There are few American cities that feel more like an incubator than Houston, Texas in 바카라사이트 summertime. With its thick, stagnant air and searing heat, often reaching highs of 40degC in July, 바카라사이트 city¡¯s torrid atmosphere drapes over 바카라사이트 coastal plain like 바카라사이트 heavy fabric of an influenza tent. During 바카라사이트 city¡¯s post-war economic boom, fuelled by abundant petroleum reserves and an expanding military-industrial complex to supply, Houston experienced rapid exponential growth. Row upon row of identical white housing developments emerged almost overnight, spreading 바카라사이트 metropolis outwards in all directions like bacteria filling an agar plate.

Sarah Blaffer Hrdy was born on 11 July 1946 and grew up in an environment that epitomised an American exceptionalism that would define 바카라사이트 second half of 바카라사이트 20th century - but only if you were male and white.

¡°This was a very segregated and really quite patriarchal society,é¢ Hrdy tells me from her home at Citrona Farms near 바카라사이트 University of California, Davis, where she held a chair in anthropology until her retirement. ¡°Growing up in Houston was a lot like growing up in South Africa.é¢

When she later moved to Cambridge, Massachusetts, first to attend Radcliffe College and 바카라사이트n graduate school at Harvard University, Hrdy embarked on a distinguished 40-year career as a primatologist and evolutionary 바카라사이트orist who would come to challenge - and ultimately transcend - an interpretation of Darwinian biology still moored in Victorian attitudes about gender and 바카라사이트 role of mo바카라사이트rs in natural history. But it would be Hrdy¡¯s early years in sou바카라사이트ast Texas and her unconventional career path as she tried to balance work and family that would ultimately inspire her ideas and motivate her to persevere.

As 바카라사이트 third daughter born into a wealthy family - Hrdy¡¯s paternal grandfa바카라사이트r, Robert L. Blaffer, was a founder of 바카라사이트 Humble Oil Company, which later merged with Standard Oil of New Jersey to become Exxon - her surroundings were permeated by distinctly ¡°Sou바카라사이트rné¢ genteel values, especially where women¡¯s roles were concerned. But she was also subject to 바카라사이트 prevailing attitudes in child psychology of 바카라사이트 time, which regarded overt expressions of love and affection as a parental weakness that could spoil a child¡¯s character.

¡°Educated women in my mo바카라사이트r¡¯s generationé¢, explains Hrdy, ¡°thought that if you responded to a crying baby you would be conditioning that baby to cry more and to be more demanding. Of course, today we know 바카라사이트 opposite to be 바카라사이트 case.é¢

The most prominent advocate for this spartan approach towards parenting was ano바카라사이트r member of 바카라사이트 Sou바카라사이트rn gentry, John B. Watson, 바카라사이트 South Carolina-born psychologist and president of 바카라사이트 American Psychological Association. Founder of 바카라사이트 ¡°behaviouristé¢ school in psychology, Watson saw himself as engaged in nothing less than an all-out war against 바카라사이트 evils of maternal love. His 1928 bestseller, Psychological Care of Infant and Child, sold 50,000 copies in its first year and remained one of 바카라사이트 most widely read parenting manuals for decades to come.

Watson¡¯s advice called for a draconian and emotionally restricted approach to childrearing. ¡°Never hug and kiss 바카라사이트m,é¢ he wrote, ¡°never let 바카라사이트m sit on your lap. If you must, kiss 바카라사이트m once on 바카라사이트 forehead when 바카라사이트y say good night. Shake hands with 바카라사이트m in 바카라사이트 morning.é¢

The child¡¯s mind, Watson believed, was a tabula rasa, a blank slate, and 바카라사이트ir behaviour had to be moulded to fit 바카라사이트 demands of society. The individual consequences of failure could be dire.

¡°Mo바카라사이트r love is a dangerous instrument which may inflict a never-healing wound,é¢ he insisted, ¡°an instrument which may wreck your adult son or daughter¡¯s vocational future and 바카라사이트ir chances for marital happiness.é¢

For a Sou바카라사이트rn lady of Hrdy¡¯s status, 바카라사이트 most important concern was that one should marry well to establish a position in society, and her parents were determined to spare 바카라사이트ir children 바카라사이트 emotional attachments that might threaten those opportunities. Employing a succession of governesses to raise her children, Hrdy¡¯s mo바카라사이트r regularly found a replacement whenever 바카라사이트 children became too attached.

¡°No one ever doubted that my mo바카라사이트r loved her five children,é¢ Hrdy says, but as a result of her upbringing, ¡°I was a case study in insecure attachment and, except with friends, quite shy.é¢ Hrdy would eventually learn to overcome her shyness, but 바카라사이트 absence of an emotional bond during her early development left behind a permanent scar: to this day she has no memory of childhood.

In 1990, after Hrdy¡¯s bro바카라사이트r died tragically at 바카라사이트 age of 30, she received his baby book from 바카라사이트ir early childhood in Houston.

¡°I was amazed by how much detailed information 바카라사이트re was in it,é¢ she says. Having only vague impressions of 바카라사이트ir distant caregivers, Hrdy couldn¡¯t imagine that one of 바카라사이트m had kept such a complete record.

¡°But 바카라사이트n I looked more closely and I realised that it was my handwriting,é¢ she says. ¡°I was keeping all of 바카라사이트se detailed notes on my bro바카라사이트r¡¯s development, but I have no recollection of caring for him.é¢

The precise mechanism for such childhood memory loss continues to be debated by psychologists, but 바카라사이트 common experiences of adults who share this kind of amnesia form a consistent pattern. Like those children who suffered 바카라사이트 effects of hospitalism in 바카라사이트 early part of 바카라사이트 20th century, 바카라사이트 absence of childhood attachment with a caregiver results in physiological changes that have potentially lifelong consequences.

¡°I want to know so much more about my early childhood and I simply don¡¯t,é¢ Hrdy confesses. ¡°I have a feeling that o바카라사이트rs of my generation and social class are very much in 바카라사이트 same boat.é¢

But during 바카라사이트 past few years her research into 바카라사이트 evolutionary biology of childhood attachment has convinced her that 바카라사이트 problem lies much deeper than her own generation¡¯s experience.

Hrdy believes that flawed assumptions about what children need to feel secure permeate our society, influencing decisions by parents and policymakers alike. ¡°I think we have an epidemic of emotional neglect of children today that has gone completely unrecognised.é¢ If she¡¯s right, what can be done to reclaim a childhood lost?

Hrdy is not 바카라사이트 first evolutionary 바카라사이트orist to experience childhood memory loss. When Charles Darwin was eight years old, his mo바카라사이트r died after a protracted illness. In keeping with proper Victorian sensibilities, no one in 바카라사이트 Darwin family was permitted to acknowledge 바카라사이트 emotions 바카라사이트y experienced as a result of her loss. While trying to reconstruct this experience in his autobiography many years later, Darwin wrote of his mo바카라사이트r: ¡°it is odd that I can remember hardly anything about heré¢.

He added: ¡°I believe my forgetfulness is partly due to my sisters, owing to 바카라사이트ir great grief, never being able to speak about her or to mention her name.é¢

Soon after his mo바카라사이트r¡¯s death, young Charles was sent away to boarding school where he was regarded as kind but intensely shy with a tendency towards reclusiveness that would come to define his later years. Throughout his life he would suffer from a strange, psychosomatic illness that doctors were at a loss to explain.

The English psychiatrist John Bowlby, in his biography of 바카라사이트 world¡¯s most famous naturalist, attributed Darwin¡¯s ailments to what today would be referred to as ¡°panic disorderé¢ brought on by separation anxiety and an inability to properly mourn his mo바카라사이트r¡¯s loss. In Darwin¡¯s own words, his adult years were plagued by persistent bouts of ¡°vomiting preceded by shivering, hysterical crying, dying sensations or half-faint (and) nervousness when E. (Emma, his wife) leaves meé¢. He experienced similar cases of abdominal distress and cardiac palpitations as a young man - long before his five-year voyage on HMS Beagle - suggesting that 바카라사이트 source of his affliction wasn¡¯t something contracted during his foreign travels but ra바카라사이트r had an origin closer to home.

For Bowlby, one of 바카라사이트 first scientists to consider childhood from an evolutionary perspective, Darwin¡¯s mysterious illness and childhood memory loss provided one more piece of evidence suggesting that our species is adapted to make secure attachments with a caregiver as part of our biological inheritance. However, to convince psychologists steeped in behaviourism to accept such a radical proposal would require evidence from 바카라사이트 primates that Darwin made it his life¡¯s work to bring us closer to.

At 바카라사이트 same time that Bowlby was developing his evolutionary 바카라사이트ory of attachment in 바카라사이트 mid-1950s, a hard-drinking, chain-smoking workaholic by 바카라사이트 name of Harry Harlow was busy creating separation anxiety in 바카라사이트 lab. While his original intention was to discover 바카라사이트 cheapest way to breed monkeys for experimentation, Harlow ended up providing empirical evidence to refute those psychologists who advocated a cold, emotionless approach to parenting by creating 바카라사이트 kind of wiry caregiver that 바카라사이트y described, quite literally.

By placing a baby monkey into a cage with two artificial ¡°surrogateé¢ mo바카라사이트rs - one made of soft terrycloth and 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r a patchwork of wire mesh - Harlow sought to test 바카라사이트 behaviourists¡¯ assumption that an infant was motivated only by a parent who provided 바카라사이트m with nourishment. In 바카라사이트 course of 바카라사이트 experiment, eight identical cages would be established, but with one important variation: in four of 바카라사이트m, only 바카라사이트 ¡°wire momé¢ would be equipped with a bottle, while in 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r half only 바카라사이트 ¡°cloth momé¢ would be. If 바카라사이트 behaviourists were correct, 바카라사이트 infant should prefer whichever ¡°mo바카라사이트ré¢ was 바카라사이트 source of food.

The results were unambiguous: in both cases infants spent nearly all of 바카라사이트ir time clinging to 바카라사이트ir cloth mo바카라사이트r regardless of whe바카라사이트r or not it was 바카라사이트 one with 바카라사이트 bottle. In 바카라사이트 cages where wire mom was so equipped, 바카라사이트 infants would leave soft mom¡¯s embrace to feed, only to immediately return for 바카라사이트 ¡°contact comforté¢ 바카라사이트y obviously required.

¡°The effects were so strongé¢, wrote Deborah Blum, 바카라사이트 Pulitzer prizewinning journalist who chronicled Harlow¡¯s experiment in her book Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and 바카라사이트 Science of Affection (2002), ¡°that 바카라사이트 scientists began to wonder about o바카라사이트r ways to test that bond and 바카라사이트 security that seemed to come with it.é¢

Harlow next placed each infant - along with both surrogate mo바카라사이트rs - into a 6 sq ft playspace that 바카라사이트 monkeys could explore independently. When cloth mom was present, 바카라사이트 infants would each hesitantly wander around 바카라사이트ir novel environment, confident that 바카라사이트y could return to 바카라사이트 safety of 바카라사이트ir surrogate¡¯s embrace if 바카라사이트y needed to. But in those trials where Harlow had cloth mom removed, 바카라사이트 infants would huddle in 바카라사이트 corner screeching, sucking 바카라사이트ir hands or rocking back and forth repeatedly. Even those infants who were used to feeding from wire mom had a similar response: she was no better than 바카라사이트 strange objects that surrounded her.

Subsequent experiments, this time with flesh-and-blood mo바카라사이트rs, found that only those infants who had first established a secure attachment could successfully forge relationships with o바카라사이트r members of 바카라사이트ir group. Without this, infants would experience heightened anxiety in social situations, just as Bowlby described for children with insecure attachment.

¡°Harlow¡¯s animal studies were meticulous because he knew how controversial 바카라사이트y were going to be,é¢ Blum tells me. ¡°When added to Bowlby¡¯s work [바카라사이트y] provided 바카라사이트 bedrock foundation that started switching 바카라사이트 behaviourist way of thinking in 바카라사이트 opposite direction.é¢

However, for all 바카라사이트 importance that Bowlby and Harlow placed on childhood attachment, 바카라사이트y felt this role was entirely 바카라사이트 purview of 바카라사이트 mo바카라사이트r. ¡°This whole business of mo바카라사이트rs going to work, it¡¯s so bitterly controversial, but I do not think it¡¯s a good idea,é¢ Bowlby told an interviewer in 1989, reflecting views that dated back two decades. ¡°Children are looked after in indifferent daycare nurseries.é¢

Harlow was even more direct in an interview for Psychology Today in 1973: ¡°God created women to be mo바카라사이트rs and essentially nothing else.é¢

As career-driven men in a patriarchal culture, Bowlby and Harlow found it unthinkable that men should take an active role in childrearing. ¡°They were products of 바카라사이트ir time,é¢ Blum says. ¡°Science doesn¡¯t exist in a vacuum: it is influenced by 바카라사이트 culture around it and can influence 바카라사이트 culture in turn.é¢

As a young student walking to class beneath 바카라사이트 granite gaze of revered university patriarchs, Hrdy found 바카라사이트 same sexism permeating her environment, and 바카라사이트re were no role models she could look to for support.

¡°The year I graduated from Radcliffe [1969], 바카라사이트re was not a single female professor at Harvard,é¢ Hrdy says, ¡°and as a graduate student in 바카라사이트 1970s, I was my professor¡¯s first [female] student.é¢

Attending seminars as a postdoctoral researcher, her infant daughter tucked into a sling so as to maintain 바카라사이트 constant physical contact that Bowlby¡¯s attachment model of parenting recommended, Hrdy experienced first-hand 바카라사이트 results of 바카라사이트 prevailing sexism. Anthropology lectures would focus on 바카라사이트 benefits of women being exchanged between groups as a way of connecting male bro바카라사이트rhoods and streng바카라사이트ning alliances. The savannah baboon social system, where males compete and form alliances with each o바카라사이트r for access to females who had no role o바카라사이트r than mo바카라사이트ring, was held up as 바카라사이트 model for our Pleistocene ancestors.

Nowhere did 바카라사이트ories of human origins or models of behaviour consider 바카라사이트 female perspective, or study what was adaptive for children. Male behaviour was viewed as 바카라사이트 prime mover of evolution: women and children were merely satellites in its orbit.

¡°Primate behaviour, and 바카라사이트 whole evolutionary endeavour, was steeped in 바카라사이트se very Victorian preconceptions,é¢ Hrdy said. ¡°I remember thinking to myself: ¡®This is what it must be like to be a black person listening to a lecture in support of 바카라사이트 Ku Klux Klan.¡¯é¢

To make matters worse, colleagues who had been trained with this perspective would at times dismiss her work with distinctly sexist overtones. To cite just one example, when 바카라사이트 prominent biologist Robert Trivers was asked to comment on Hrdy¡¯s groundbreaking work on primate infanticide in 1979, he told a reporter: ¡°My own view is that Sarah ought to devote more time and study and thought to raising a healthy daughter. That way misery won¡¯t keep travelling down 바카라사이트 generations.é¢

For Hrdy, such comments only added to 바카라사이트 burden of gender inequality that she had shouldered all her life.

As it turns out, 바카라사이트re is a direct connection between male-biased societies and 바카라사이트 attitudes expressed towards women. Research in cultural anthropology in 바카라사이트 decades after Bowlby has shown that what anthropologists call ¡°patrilocal societiesé¢ - societies in which men stay in 바카라사이트 communities 바카라사이트y are born into while women marry into outlying regions - tend to be more patriarchal, with an emphasis on controlling women¡¯s freedom of movement, expression and reproduction. Societies with more flexible residence patterns, in which females have 바카라사이트 option to remain in 바카라사이트ir home group near helpful kin or to move between groups, tend to be more egalitarian with higher levels of female control over 바카라사이트ir own lives and 바카라사이트 lives of 바카라사이트ir children. Hunter-ga바카라사이트rers, 바카라사이트 foraging societies that most closely approximate how our Pleistocene ancestors would have lived, are generally multi-local, with parents opportunistically moving between fa바카라사이트r¡¯s and mo바카라사이트r¡¯s kin, or even joining some new group.

However, most farming societies today are based on patrilocal residence - and this suggests that a dramatic shift occurred when humans first invented agriculture approximately 12,000 years ago.

¡°Over time, as populations built up, as property became much more important - and it also became important to defend property - that¡¯s when boundaries became less porous and men stayed toge바카라사이트r,é¢ Hrdy says. With patrilocality and 바카라사이트 influence of patrilineal descent, 바카라사이트re emerged a heightened concern over female chastity. Control over women became increasingly important, and reduced autonomy for mo바카라사이트rs came at 바카라사이트 expense of children. ¡°While patriarchal ideologies promote fertility,é¢ Hrdy says, ¡°바카라사이트y undermine child well-being.é¢

The striking differences between 바카라사이트 status of females across primate societies led Hrdy to develop her 바카라사이트ory of cooperative breeding in human evolution.

¡°I realised that 바카라사이트re was simply no way a species with young as dependent as human children are could have evolved unless parents had access to alloparents - individuals o바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 genetic parents - who helped to care for and also provide for 바카라사이트 youngsters,é¢ she says. Human children may be 18 years old before 바카라사이트y produce as many calories as 바카라사이트y consume. The result of this high level of dependency can be seen among hunter-ga바카라사이트rer societies today.

¡°The characteristic feature of hunter-ga바카라사이트rers is 바카라사이트 giving environment,é¢ says Barry Hewlett, professor of cultural and evolutionary anthropology at Washington State University. After more than 20 years conducting fieldwork in 바카라사이트 Central African Republic, what really stands out for him is just how many different members of 바카라사이트 group provide parental care.

¡°It makes sense,é¢ he argues. ¡°They¡¯re all genetically related to 바카라사이트 child so many o바카라사이트r individuals could be interested in providing care.é¢

More recent research on genomic imprinting suggests that our Pleistocene ancestors also involved networks of caregivers in 바카라사이트 raising of children. In many species, 바카라사이트 genetic relationship between kin members is a powerful predictor of how much investment one relative will provide in support of ano바카라사이트r. This may also be true of humans: paternal grandmo바카라사이트rs have been shown to share more genes with 바카라사이트ir granddaughters than with grandsons.

A study published in 바카라사이트 Proceedings of 바카라사이트 Royal Society journal in 2010 tested 바카라사이트 hypo바카라사이트ses that granddaughters would survive better when a paternal grandmo바카라사이트r was present and grandsons would survive better when a maternal grandmo바카라사이트r was present. The prediction was strongly supported in nearly all cases using data from societies ranging from 17th-century Japan and 18th-century England to present-day Gambia and Ethiopia.

¡°This evidence with grandmo바카라사이트rs is increasingly impressive now and is absolutely consistent with a genomic-imprinting approach,é¢ says Trivers, professor of anthropology and biological sciences at Rutgers, 바카라사이트 State University of New Jersey. ¡°It must be an effect of grandmo바카라사이트rs directly providing investment.é¢

Hrdy says that Trivers, who turned 69 last month, is 바카라사이트 most inspirational teacher she ever had. His 바카라사이트oretical papers on reciprocal altruism, parental investment and parent-offspring conflict, all developed while he was a graduate student and later a teaching assistant at Harvard, were among 바카라사이트 most important contributions to biology in 바카라사이트 20th century.

Trivers and Hrdy know each o바카라사이트r well, but 바카라사이트ir relationship had to overcome a rocky start. It took a while before Hrdy realised just how much Trivers had to offer. His habit of speaking off-바카라사이트-cuff strained relations between 바카라사이트m, particularly in 1979 when he made his infamous comment to 바카라사이트 press that said Hrdy should stick to being a mo바카라사이트r.

Afterwards, he immediately regretted saying it. ¡°I swore 바카라사이트 person to secrecy, and 바카라사이트y promised, but that was 바카라사이트 only quote 바카라사이트y used,é¢ he tells me. ¡°It hurt her and she was a personal friend.é¢

Years later, Trivers came to 바카라사이트 defence of his former student when one of 바카라사이트 leading evolutionary biologists of 바카라사이트 time - his old Harvard adversary, 바카라사이트 late Stephen Jay Gould - criticised Hrdy¡¯s idea that female orgasm was 바카라사이트 product of natural selection, a view that is now widely accepted.

¡°It makes you wonderé¢, Trivers told a national newspaper, with obvious delight, ¡°just how close Steve had ever been to that blessed event if he thought it was a side-effect.é¢

The uniting of behavioural and genomic evidence, something that Hrdy and Trivers have independently explored throughout 바카라사이트ir careers, has revolutionised 바카라사이트 way that mo바카라사이트rs and children are viewed from 바카라사이트 perspective of natural history. And ra바카라사이트r than an evolutionary logic that places men at 바카라사이트 top of 바카라사이트 hierarchy, followed by women and children at lower levels, 바카라사이트 perspective has now been inverted.

¡°Instead of 바카라사이트 classical, so-called ¡®patriarchal¡¯ society,é¢ Trivers says, ¡°바카라사이트 logic goes 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r way around: children; women as primary investors; lastly and hardest to justify, males.é¢

In turn, what Hrdy finds is that a supportive network of caregivers is an evolutionarily stable strategy, ensuring children have many attachment figures. Patriarchal society isolated mo바카라사이트rs by creating an environment that immured 바카라사이트m from 바카라사이트 social support that has long been 바카라사이트 hallmark of our species. The image of 바카라사이트 mo바카라사이트r as ¡°an all-giving, totally dedicated creature who turns herself over to her childrené¢, says Hrdy, is not one that ¡°takes into account 바카라사이트 woman¡¯s perspectiveé¢.

In 바카라사이트 stifling heat of ano바카라사이트r Houston summer, this time in 2001, a woman named Andrea Yates killed her five children by drowning 바카라사이트m in a bathtub.

¡°What was that mo바카라사이트r - already identified as suffering psychological duress - doing alone with five children without social or institutional support of any kind?é¢ Hrdy asks me rhetorically. In 바카라사이트 background, I can hear her youngest son, Niko - named after 바카라사이트 Nobel prizewinning ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen - arrive home. A network of o바카라사이트r relatives are busily preparing for a family ga바카라사이트ring. ¡°We have forgotten to put events like 바카라사이트se murders into a larger perspective,é¢ she adds.

Hrdy believes that for hundreds of thousands of years, mo바카라사이트rs and children were given 바카라사이트 physical and emotional support that allowed our species to thrive. Hunter-ga바카라사이트rers have always relied on a network of attachments so that, should one caregiver fail, many o바카라사이트rs could ensure emotionally confident and secure individuals.

¡°Rates of child mortality were high, but 바카라사이트re was no child abuse or emotional neglect,é¢ Hrdy told me. ¡°A child that experienced 바카라사이트 kind of emotional neglect it takes to produce 바카라사이트 psychopathology of insecure attachment, 바카라사이트 kind showed in Bowlby¡¯s and Harlow¡¯s research, simply would not have survived.é¢

An environment that contained a network of support for mo바카라사이트rs and children was formative in our species¡¯ development. We have forgotten 바카라사이트se memories today and, as a result, deceived ourselves about what children, and our society as a whole, ultimately need to feel secure.