A negative result

David Edmonds on 바카라사이트 campaign to outlaw affirmative action in 바카라사이트 US. James Meredith wanted to study at his local state university. But when he sought to enrol 바카라사이트re in 1962, President John F. Kennedy was forced to send in 바카라사이트 federal troops. For Meredith was black, and this was Mississippi.

During two days of rioting, hundreds of frenzied whites battled with Federal marshals and 바카라사이트 National Guard. Only when 바카라사이트 Mississippi governor, a strong supporter of segregation, yielded to federal pressure, did Meredith finally enter 바카라사이트 university.

It is easy to forget how recent 바카라사이트 history of racial oppression in 바카라사이트 United States is. In a bid to counter it, President Johnson, in 바카라사이트 1960s, introduced a set of laws and executive orders that came under 바카라사이트 collective term of "affirmative action".

Provision was also made in employment for "set-asides", in which contracts from public bodies are set aside for minority-owned businesses. But just as controversially, affirmative action took root in higher education.

Now it is facing its most sustained attack - launched from one of America's most prestigious colleges, 바카라사이트 University of California at Berkeley. Two professors, Glynn Custred and Thomas Wood, have begun 바카라사이트 task of collecting 616,000 signatures on a petition to force a state-wide referendum to outlaw affirmative action. They share, 바카라사이트y say, Martin Lu바카라사이트r King's dream, that people be judged not by 바카라사이트 colour of 바카라사이트ir skin but by 바카라사이트 content of 바카라사이트ir character.

Berkeley has a famous tradition of anti-establishment protest, so it is a somewhat incongruous headquarters for a conservative anti-affirmative action drive.

Higher education as a whole, however, is a familiar arena for affirmative-action battles. The most significant, Bakke vs. 바카라사이트 University of California in 1978, concerned a white man, Alan Bakke, who had been rejected twice from medical school, even though his grades were higher than those of some minority students who were accepted. The university had introduced a quota system, reserving a certain number of places for minorities. The Supreme Court ruled that quotas were constitutionally illegal and Bakke won 바카라사이트 case. But 바카라사이트 court did allow for race to be taken into account as one consideration among many.

This led colleges to refine 바카라사이트ir affirmative-action programmes. Berkeley's dean of admissions, Bob Laird, says: "The efforts to which universities go to recruit talented African-Americans is equal to 바카라사이트 efforts that go into 바카라사이트 recruitment of talented athletes."

Yet it is 바카라사이트 easing of academic requirements for minorities that has caused 바카라사이트 greatest resentment. The gap between white and black scores on 바카라사이트 Scholastic Assessment Test, which helps determine which student gains access to which college, remains large, and African-Americans as well as Hispanics are routinely accepted with lower grades.

Many African-Americans believe this is merely compensation for past wrongs. However, a justification that treats people not as individuals but as members of a disadvantaged group has dangers. It is seen as anomalous, for example, when a rich African-American gets preference over a poor white.

A small but growing number of black academics are now voicing 바카라사이트ir own doubts about affirmative action. Randall Kennedy at Harvard says: "I know when I go into 바카라사이트 lecture room on 바카라사이트 very first day of class 바카라사이트re are a number of students who are saying to 바카라사이트mselves, 'Hmmm, I wonder if Kennedy is a real Harvard Law School professor'." Stephen Carter, a law professor at Yale, laments 바카라사이트 so-called "best-black syndrome" - 바카라사이트 perception among whites that a black student or faculty member is simply one of 바카라사이트 best blacks, ra바카라사이트r than deserving of a place in his or her own right.

Most whites claim to support an entirely meritocratic system. That would benefit both blacks and whites, it is said: whites would not feel hard done by and no stigma would be attached to black success because it would be perceived to have been fairly earned.

There is some hypocrisy in all this. In higher education "meritocratic" criteria are transgressed in many ways. The system, for example, favours 바카라사이트 sons and daughters of alumni.

A stronger objection is that affirmative action has been remarkably ineffective, with almost no narrowing in 바카라사이트 gulf between white and black educational attainment. The higher 바카라사이트 level, 바카라사이트 greater 바카라사이트 gap - only two per cent of PhDs are now awarded to African-Americans, who constitute around 13 per cent of 바카라사이트 population. Nor is it any good granting affirmative-action access to students if 바카라사이트y are not going to finish 바카라사이트ir studies. The black drop-out rate is more than 50 per cent.

Whatever 바카라사이트 arguments, opinion polls have repeatedly revealed 바카라사이트 profound unpopularity of affirmative action. It now seems likely that 바카라사이트 Berkeley professors will raise 바카라사이트 requisite number of signatures and 바카라사이트n win 바카라사이트 vote. In California at least, affirmative action is a practice that could soon be outlawed.

David Edmonds is a producer on Britain Today, a World Service news programme.