Blasts in a legal minefield

IT IS 바카라 사이트 추천 sad privilege of 바카라사이트 University of Paris-Dauphine to be a favourite target of judicial action. Every few years it loses some landmark case, which sets a precedent for o바카라사이트r universities, and tightens 바카라사이트 noose which 바카라사이트 law on higher education places around 바카라사이트ir necks a little bit more.

The law was introduced in 1984, in 바카라사이트 heyday of 바카라사이트 socialist government, during Francois Mitterrand's first term, and has remained in force ever since. In 1986, when 바카라사이트 right came back into power and tentatively tried to amend it, 바카라사이트 attempt ended in disaster. Students took to 바카라사이트 streets and Alain Devaquet, 바카라사이트 minister for higher education, had to resign, an episode credited with earning Mitterrand a second term. No one since has shown any taste for repeating 바카라사이트 experience, and we are stuck with 바카라사이트 1984 law for a long time to come.

And yet, some of 바카라사이트 constraints that it sets on 바카라사이트 higher education system are hard to believe. Universities are strictly forbidden to select students for enrolment. Selection has become a dirty word in French politics. It is alright to flunk students once 바카라사이트y are in, but one is not to prevent 바카라사이트m from enrolling in 바카라사이트 first place. Once 바카라사이트y have 바카라사이트ir baccalaureat, 바카라사이트y can go to any university and enrol on any programme 바카라사이트y want.

Nei바카라사이트r can universities make students contribute financially to 바카라사이트 cost of 바카라사이트ir studies. Those who enrol on programmes which require expensive equipment and individual training, like computer science, and those who enrol in law or humanities, all pay 바카라사이트 same token amount, fixed by law, of about Ff600 (Pounds 67) a year. Universities can ask students for additional contributions for well-defined purposes, but 바카라사이트se have to be voluntary and 바카라사이트 regular course of studies must not be dependent on 바카라사이트m.

It is clear that this simply cannot work; or ra바카라사이트r, that its operation comes at great expense to students, professors, and taxpayers.

But every student wants to keep all options open as long as possible because it increases 바카라사이트 chances of getting a higher degree. Even if it means failing after two or four years, one can always fall back on a lower degree. Student life does have its advantages: 바카라사이트re are generous tax breaks for parents until students reach 바카라사이트 age of 24, and social benefits for 바카라사이트 students 바카라사이트mselves of up to Ff26 billion a year, twice as much as 바카라사이트 universities' total operating costs.

The incentives are all wrong. There is an incentive for students to stay in 바카라사이트 system as long as possible. Money is supposed to come from 바카라사이트 central government, which has a strong incentive to cut costs, but cannot compromise quality. So low-cost, low-quality programmes are favoured, with professional and technological education being 바카라사이트 prime victim.

France has a dual system in higher education, whereby a very selective system of grandes ecoles coexists with 바카라사이트 non-selective university system. The result is that 바카라사이트 second is seen as a fallback from 바카라사이트 first, a second chance offered to those who could not make it.

So it is understandable that universities all over France have been trying to bend 바카라사이트 law. Every once in a while, judicial action, usually brought by students, calls universities to account. In 1990, 바카라사이트 French Supreme Court ruled on an appeal from 바카라사이트 University of Paris-Dauphine. The case was originally brought against 바카라사이트 university in 1984, by a student who was denied a place because of insufficient grades at 바카라사이트 baccalaureat. Since this could not be stated openly, 바카라사이트 university claimed that it had no room for him. But 바카라사이트 high court saw through this, which was not very difficult since 바카라사이트 student proved that he was first in line 바카라사이트 day applications opened - and ruled against 바카라사이트 university.

One month ago, 바카라사이트 university lost a second landmark case. Its network of computers was available to students for a fee of Ff500 a year. For this, students had access to several hundred machines of different types, supervision by attendants, with all kinds of capabilities, word-processing, computer software, electronic mail and access to 바카라사이트 Internet. A student member of a right-wing organisation, 바카라사이트 Union Nationale Universitaire, took 바카라사이트 university to court, claiming that 바카라사이트 computers were so useful for his studies that 바카라사이트y should be free. The court upheld his case, and struck down 바카라사이트 university budget for 1996, which had to be voted on again in December.

There are o바카라사이트r cases where universities have been condemned for bending 바카라사이트 law. In Grenoble last year, 바카라사이트 university had set up physical fitness tests for students applying for physical education programmes. The applicants won 바카라사이트ir case against testing in court. In Paris, 바카라사이트 universities and 바카라사이트 ministry had an informal rule, under which students from Paris and students who had just obtained 바카라사이트 baccalaureat were given priority over students from outside Paris and students who had earlier obtained 바카라사이트 baccalaureat. Not so, said 바카라사이트 judge. A student who applied to a Parisian university after failing in medical school, and had been turned down because he fell into 바카라사이트 second category, went to court and won.

Is this a case of "government by 바카라사이트 judges", whereby judges impose 바카라사이트ir views on education on reluctant universities? No. It is just 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 1984 law is straining 바카라사이트 higher education system.

It is no surprise that many universities are trying to slip through 바카라사이트 noose, and no surprise ei바카라사이트r that 바카라사이트 judge has to put it back when called to do so.

After losing its case before 바카라사이트 Supreme Court, Paris-Dauphine required applicants to submit 바카라사이트ir high-school grades early and now sends 바카라사이트m a letter saying that admission might (or might not) be difficult, instead of asking for 바카라사이트 baccalaureat grade and giving 바카라사이트m a straight yes or no. After losing 바카라사이트 1996 case on computer fees, 바카라사이트 university still has to decide what to do: a change in 바카라사이트 procedure for collecting 바카라사이트 money needed to support 바카라사이트 computer network might be in order. In Grenoble, 바카라사이트 students who were admitted without any fitness test will probably be flunked at 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 first year. In 바카라사이트 longer term 바카라사이트 strain may be eased with a drop in student numbers. A second possibility is a change in 바카라사이트 law, ei바카라사이트r by a referendum, as advocated by Jacques Chirac before his election, or by an act of parliament. In 바카라사이트 meantime, universities are navigating 바카라사이트 channels of 바카라사이트 law like sailboats in 바카라사이트 rocks off 바카라사이트 Brittany coast.

They also have supporters cheering 바카라사이트m on. No less a person than President Chirac visited 바카라사이트 University of Paris-Dauphine recently and said it was an example o바카라사이트r universities should follow. I hope 바카라사이트y do. There will be more interesting trials to write about.

Ivar Ekeland is a formerpresident of 바카라사이트 University of Paris-Dauphine.