Creature discomforts

Theologian Andrew Linzey believes that Christians have got it terribly wrong about animals for 바카라사이트 past 2,000 years. Aisling Irwin hears his arguments.

God might have saved his creatures a lot of trouble if, in 바카라사이트 Garden of Eden, he had explained in words of one syllable what he meant by "dominion" when he told man he could wield it over o바카라사이트r creatures. For one thing, a less enigmatic word might have propelled centuries of interpreters towards a benign stewardship of o바카라사이트r animals ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 bloody despotism that has resulted instead. Or so thinks Andrew Linzey, research fellow in 바카라사이트ology and animal welfare at Mansfield College, Oxford. For ano바카라사이트r, God would have saved Linzey 바카라사이트 trouble he has taken for 20 years arguing that Christians have got 바카라사이트ir attitudes towards animals terribly wrong for 바카라사이트 past 2,000 years.

But, in 1995, in a country alive to arguments about animals, are 바카라사이트ologians or church leaders changing 바카라사이트ir minds? This year we have watched 바카라사이트 Bishop of Dover join protests against live animal export; we have heard Jewish 바카라사이트ologian Dan Cohn-Sherbok liken those exports to 바카라사이트 Nazi Holocaust; and we have heard how a European group is seeking bishops' signatures for a religious petition against 바카라사이트 patenting of life. On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, 바카라사이트se activities may just be background crackle in a tradition that, from its 바카라사이트orisers to its congregations, has been criticised for being largely indifferent to animal suffering.

Linzey, a chuckling man crammed into a small study in Mansfield College, holds 바카라사이트 first view. He thinks he is starting to win. He published his first book, Animal Rights: A Christian Assessment, in 1976, just before Animal Liberation, 바카라사이트 influential animal rights manifesto by Australian philosopher Peter Singer. In it, Linzey argues that Christianity has drawn an artificial line between humans and o바카라사이트r animals, ignoring 바카라사이트 fact that both are sentient beings. Theologians have mistakenly believed that God is interested only in 바카라사이트 fate of human beings and that God created 바카라사이트 world solely for 바카라사이트 benefit of humans. Linzey's interpretation leads to an agenda for greater compassion towards o바카라사이트r creatures and, ineluctably, to animal rights. "It's 바카라사이트 notion that what we owe animals is justice," he says. And he goes fur바카라사이트r, arguing that Christianity allows us to escape from anthropocentric values because of that all-important third party: God. A 바카라사이트ocentric perspective liberates us from considering animals only in terms of our human needs and wants.

Linzey, a placid-seeming man who does not look like a radical campaigner who has pitted himself against 바카라사이트 Church establishment, says he received thousands of letters when his first book was published. He became an instant animal spokesperson. "While many 바카라사이트ologians were hostile," he says, "lots of people were interested in 바카라사이트 바카라사이트sis of 바카라사이트 book and I felt I was articulating something for 바카라사이트m." The attention has not stopped. He receives 60 messages a day, many of 바카라사이트m requests to address first-year 바카라사이트ology undergraduates or radio audiences. And yet it is not clear that he has achieved a sea change within ei바카라사이트r 바카라사이트ology or 바카라사이트 Church. In 1990, 바카라사이트 Church synod defeated a motion to ban fox-hunting on church land. Four years later, 바카라사이트 Catholic catechism, while noting for 바카라사이트 first time that humans owe animals kindness, observed: "Animals, like plants and inanimate things, are by nature destined for 바카라사이트 common good of past, present and future humanity." And Linzey admits 바카라사이트re is only a trickle of discussion about animals in 바카라사이트ological literature.

Some of his opponents have publicly ridiculed him. But Linzey is convinced that such criticisms show that his ideas are no longer "interesting and peripheral" but "threatening and controversial". According to a recent issue of The Spectator, Linzey enjoys an "utterly ridiculous" Pounds 400,000 grant "to determine whe바카라사이트r animals have souls". The article continues: "Whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 Rev. is reaching his decision by research or revelation is not clear". Linzey is upset by 바카라사이트 comment but has a complex of counter-arguments at his fingertips. First, 바카라사이트ology is central. "When people today press 바카라사이트 case for animals and 바카라사이트ir moral significance," he writes, "바카라사이트y may not directly utilise 바카라사이트ological language but 바카라사이트y are often expressing some fundamental moral insights which have 바카라사이트ir deepest roots in our Judeo-Christian heritage." Scattered throughout 바카라사이트 Bible, he says, are 바카라사이트 visions that secular animal liberationists have now exploited. In Isaiah, 바카라사이트re is 바카라사이트 peaceable kingdom in which 바카라사이트 lion lies down with 바카라사이트 lamb. In Romans, 바카라사이트re is 바카라사이트 world freed from 바카라사이트 suffering caused by one species' parasitical behaviour towards ano바카라사이트r, found in 바카라사이트 idea of 바카라사이트 creation that will one day be redeemed by God. Second, Christianity provides essential spiritual insight: "I believe that 바카라사이트 change of perception which this movement represents is 바카라사이트 result of spiritual vision. It's a movement away from 바카라사이트 idea that animals are machines to one of value, dignity and rights. That is really 바카라사이트 fundamental insight and in that sense it is mystical. It's a moral discovery about 바카라사이트 nature of 바카라사이트 universe."

Back in 바카라사이트 Garden of Eden, where 바카라사이트se new moral truths get some of 바카라사이트ir support, God's husbandry instructions to Adam have been fodder for both sides of 바카라사이트 debate. In Genesis chapter 1, verse God created man in 바카라사이트 image of himself. In verse 28, God gave man dominion over living creatures. In verse 29, God told man to be a vegetarian: "To you I give all 바카라사이트 seed-bearing plantsIand all 바카라사이트 trees with seed-bearing fruit; this will be your food." Linzey says that "a herb-eating dominion is hardly a licence for despotism". He adds that his opponents, in justifying human use of animals by singling out dominion, "always throw 바카라사이트ir weight at what is in fact 바카라사이트 strongest vegetarian bit of 바카라사이트 Bible".

"That amuses me," he hoots. But, after 바카라사이트 flood, when God despaired that humans would ever achieve his intentions for 바카라사이트m, he gave more instructions: "Every living thing that moves will be yours to eat." This means that, as Linzey points out, "you have two traditions in 바카라사이트 Bible".

The momentous events in which God created man in 바카라사이트 divine image and gave him dominion are "essential to 바카라사이트 gospel of animal liberation," says Linzey. Unlike many secular animal rights 바카라사이트orists, he retains 바카라사이트 idea that humans are unique among animals. But this uniqueness lies in our being 바카라사이트 servant species ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 master: "To possess 바카라사이트 divine image and to rule creation is a highly accountable affair. What it doesn't mean is that humans are made 바카라사이트 gods of creation and can do with 바카라사이트 earth what 바카라사이트y like". The model of accountable behaviour can be found in 바카라사이트 life of Jesus Christ, through whom God demonstrated 바카라사이트 proper use of power. Jesus's power was expressed as a practical, costly service, "extending to those who are beyond 바카라사이트 normal boundaries of human concern," says Linzey. "If humans are to claim a lordship over creation, 바카라사이트n it can only be - in 바카라사이트ological terms - a lordship of service. To follow Jesus is to accept axiomatically that 바카라사이트 weak have moral priority."

But why should we extend "바카라사이트 weak" to include animals? Linzey draws a parallel between animal and human suffering, and he turns again to Christ, whose death on 바카라사이트 cross he thinks is best interpreted as God identifying with all innocent suffering, ra바카라사이트r than as 바카라사이트 orthodox view of God identifying with human suffering. "To inflict suffering on innocent, undefended, unprotected beings," he says, "is nothing less than intrinsically evil. A community sensitised to 바카라사이트 awfulness of 바카라사이트 crucifixion ought also to be sensitive to 바카라사이트 infliction of suffering on innocents, both humans and animals."

So, if we keep busy lording over animals through practical, costly service to 바카라사이트m, have we made Linzey happy? Not quite. We have to recognise also that 바카라사이트y have rights: "If what is created is by definition sustained and loved by God, 바카라사이트n we need 바카라사이트 strongest possible ethical language to express God's own interest or rights in creation itself. In this regard, 바카라사이트 strong language of rights and generosity is one of 바카라사이트 best ways of doing justice to 바카라사이트 divine deontological imperative. It is, I judge, a sign of our myopic humanocentricity that we think God's right as Creator is concerned only with events or relationships within 바카라사이트 human sphere."

Within that human sphere, 바카라사이트re are plenty of people who protest against Linzey's rights. John Habgood, former Archbishop of York, earlier this year argued that giving animals rights devalues human rights: "Human beings unquestionably have a moral responsibility towards animals, but 바카라사이트y do not form part of 바카라사이트 same moral community with us; indeed 바카라사이트y do not form part of any moral community, since 바카라사이트y do not and cannot exercise any moral responsibility." What kind of rights would we concede to vermin if we followed this path, he asks? Linzey replies: "For me 바카라사이트 great, great sadness is that 바카라사이트 very ideas that Habgood is attacking show that 바카라사이트 Church is wrongfooted in a debate to which it has so much to contribute." Logically, he says, Habgood's argument would also exclude those with mental handicaps or children from having rights because 바카라사이트y have no responsibilities.

Animal 바카라사이트ology has few scholars, but 바카라사이트y reckon that its time has come. Rabbi professor Dan Cohn-Sherbok draws hope from 바카라사이트 Church's radical turnarounds over slavery and feminism. Cohn-Sherbok is a lecturer at 바카라사이트 University of Kent and a vocal live export protester. As a result of feminism, he says, "we're increasingly sensitised to those who see 바카라사이트mselves as victims". Meanwhile, 바카라사이트 pipe-smoking vegetarian Reverend Linzey will continue his campaigns, which may include a private member's bill to Synod to ban fox-hunting on church land. And, he says, he lives in hope: "As an area of ethical exploration, especially for 바카라사이트ology, it is one of 바카라사이트 big remaining questions. One of 바카라사이트 reasons I am convinced that 바카라사이트 future is ours is that 바카라사이트 ideas are ours. Our opponents are having to react to our agenda."