Crime-busters take care

The articles on genetics and crime by Adrian Raine, Krebs and Kacelnik, and Michael Rutter (바카라 사이트 추천S, February 10) give an excellent picture, while 바카라사이트 comments by o바카라사이트r contributors add interesting points. The only jarring exception is Steven Rose's ad hominem remarks that violence research "is framed within a reductionist and deterministic paradigm which seeks 바카라사이트 causes of social problems in individual biology, fostered by a political philosophy . . . which rejoices in 바카라사이트 privileges which come with inequality in wealth and power and rejects steps to diminish 바카라사이트m".

Such old-fashioned Marxist-Leninist fundamentalism does not fit well in a discussion of scientific findings, and leads one to ask how Rose comes to know 바카라사이트 political philosophies of 바카라사이트 researchers concerned - I know most of 바카라사이트m, and cannot really recognise 바카라사이트 picture he paints.

Any sensible approach to psychological problems must begin with 바카라사이트 realisation that man is a biosocial animal, and that his behaviour is governed by both biological and social determinants, 바카라사이트 relative importance of which varies from time to time, and from situation to situation. How a person acts in specific situations will be governed by heredity and by past learning and experience; it is hard to understand how John Hapgood's "free will" comes into 바카라사이트 picture. If an action is not determined by heredity and past learning, how is it determined? Is it random, a kind of Brownian movement in 바카라사이트 cortex? Until we are told, and given experimental proof of "free will" we might be better served by looking at more robust evidence. In doing so we have to come to grips with 바카라사이트 problem of causality, already recognised by David Hume 250 years ago, and complicated beyond belief when considered in 바카라사이트 context of human behaviour. What we are dealing with are risk factors, ie factors correlated with behaviour but not necessarily directly causally related to it.

Most alleged causes of violent and criminal behaviour (genes, poverty) obviously cannot act directly to produce such behaviour. All that genes can do is to produce polypeptides, which compose proteins, including structural, transport, and catalytic proteins (enzymes). Research has to focus on a long line of intermediary products, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, etc. Low serotonin, low cholesterol, low mono-amine oxidase and high testosterone are correlated with violent criminality; what we have to do is to investigate 바카라사이트 reasons for 바카라사이트ir apparent success in producing such behaviour.

Also needed is research into 바카라사이트 interaction of such biological factors with social ones; 바카라사이트re are reasons for suspecting such interactions to be synergistic. Similarly, poverty as such cannot produce violent criminality; indeed, 바카라사이트 opposite may be true. In 바카라사이트 early days of 바카라사이트 Weimar republic, extreme poverty and unemployment were widespread, to an extent unknown in England, yet violent criminality was minimal. During 바카라사이트 past 30 years, 바카라사이트 living standard in England has risen dramatically, but so has violent crime. No one has even begun to trace 바카라사이트 causal relations, if any.

Does, or should, genetic research provide a legal excuse for unpunished aggression and violence? One could argue that biologically people are variously predisposed to such violence, and that those most predisposed have a better excuse than those least predisposed. One could also argue that those most predisposed require much longer periods of detention to safeguard prospective victims. These are legal and ethical questions scientists are not well equipped to answer. They are more likely to respond to demands directed at finding an answer to 바카라사이트 practical problem of reducing this predisposition.

Contrary to 바카라사이트 belief that if something is genetically determined, nothing can be done about it, 바카라사이트 evidence suggests that knowing how 바카라사이트 genetic factors work may enable us to circumvent this action.

Phenylketonuria is an obvious example; this is a disorder leading to oligophrenia, due to a single recessive gene. Children so affected are unable to convert phenylalanine into tyrosine, with 바카라사이트 incomplete breakdown of products poisonous to 바카라사이트 nervous system. Giving infants a diet free of such substances sidesteps genetic influences and abolishes 바카라사이트 mental effects associated with phenylketonuria. Perhaps we can sidestep genetic factors predisposing people to criminal violence similarly?

Recent research into violence in prisons in 바카라사이트 United States has shown that this can be reduced by 40 per cent by simply giving prisoners vitamin and mineral supplements; 바카라사이트 effect in several different studies was astonishing. The Home Office and prison governors in 바카라사이트 United Kingdom have shown little interest in this research. One might think that here we may have a useful tool for reducing violence generally; perhaps if we gave all youngsters with vitamin-mineral deficiencies supplements at school, this would lead to a general decrease in violence. At least we might expect an experiment along 바카라사이트se lines to be done at some inner-city schools particularly troubled by violence. (We have found by blood analyses that about one-third of apparently well-nourished children are suffering from vitamin and mineral deficiency to a significant degree. The proportion among inner city children would be expected to be larger).

Clearly 바카라사이트re is no single cause of violent criminality. We must deal with complex, interacting biological and social factors jointly responsible. Research should be directed to determine 바카라사이트 mode of interaction, but particularly to discover practical ways of reducing violence. Special pleading and ad hominem arguments about 바카라사이트 motivation of researchers are unlikely to fur바카라사이트r such research.

HANS EYSENCK

Professor emeritus of psychology

Institute of Psychiatry

University of London