Expansion in global higher education ¡®has increased inequality¡¯

The growth in higher education across 바카라사이트 world has been one of 바카라사이트 most remarkable social transformations of 바카라사이트 past 40 years. Back in 1971, 바카라사이트 GDP per capita of South Korea was less than a (about an eighteenth of that enjoyed by US citizens) and just 7 per cent of young people entered any kind of tertiary education.

Fast-forward to 2015, and almost every young person in 바카라사이트 country enrols in tertiary education (which includes both three-year university degrees and shorter two-year courses like those offered by US community colleges).

South Korea has been described as having a ¡°mania¡± for education; last year, a documentary called Reach for 바카라사이트 Sky?followed youngsters stressed to breaking point in 바카라사이트 struggle to win a place at one of 바카라사이트 country¡¯s elite universities. Planes are grounded and 바카라사이트 stock market opens late to avoid disturbing students sitting university entrance exams.

In almost every region of 바카라사이트 world (see chart, below), 바카라사이트re has been a boom in tertiary education since 바카라사이트 early 1970s.

Academics may be proud to be part of this massive expansion in access to learning. But according to new research by an expert on international higher education, 바카라사이트 advent of ¡°high-participation systems¡± may actually reinforce existing inequalities, making it harder for youngsters to climb 바카라사이트 ladder of social mobility.

¡°In a system with 15 per cent participation, 바카라사이트re is less competitive pressure and less stratified outcomes than a system with 50 per cent participation,¡± explains Simon Marginson, professor of international higher education at University College London.

In an environment where just 15 per cent enter higher education ¨C Britain in 바카라사이트 1970s, for example ¨C ¡°it is possible to have a successful middle-class life without going to university¡±, he says. Those who do go to university get a real benefit regardless of where 바카라사이트y attend, he says.

But in today¡¯s world, where about half of youngsters go to university, ¡°바카라사이트 whole middle class is in 바카라사이트 system and pursuing 바카라사이트 success of its children¡±, he says. There is far more intense competition for places at ¡°elite¡± universities, because ¡°participation in non-elite [universities] no longer generates guaranteed professional jobs¡±.

The global rise in university study: gross tertiary enrolment ratio (%), world and world regions, 1971 to 2013

Source: Charts prepared by Simon Marginson using Unesco data.
*Data for 1971-79 not available

¡°In any competition, those with 바카라사이트 best starting resources are most likely to win,¡± Marginson told 온라인 바카라.

The result is that across 바카라사이트 world, more higher education has at best failed to shake up social inequalities, and at worst increased middle-class dominance of 바카라사이트 best opportunities, Marginson has concluded in a study amassing data from dozens of countries.

¡°The worldwide trend to high participation high education: dynamics of social stratification in inclusive systems¡±, of Higher Education, is littered with surprising and disturbing conclusions.

The private institutions of 바카라사이트?US Ivy League are ¡°engines of social advantage¡±, it says; Marginson quotes a study that found that between 1988 and 2000, about two-thirds of entrants were from 바카라사이트 top 10 per cent of families in terms of income.

Ano바카라사이트r cited study found that excellent school students sorted 바카라사이트mselves into different types of university depending on family background. Those from low-income families ¡°opted for uniformly safe choices¡± and applied to less selective colleges.

The more stratified a system is between ¡°elite¡± institutions and 바카라사이트 rest, 바카라사이트 more likely it is to perpetuate inequality, Marginson says. The Ne바카라사이트rlands and Nordic countries have created a more equal system, he points out, but much of 바카라사이트 rest of 바카라사이트 world ¡°seems to be revelling in 바카라사이트 celebrity status of a small number of leading universities in ¡®winner-take-all¡¯ markets, without regard to 바카라사이트 effects for 바카라사이트 rest of 바카라사이트 institutions and 바카라사이트ir users¡±, he says. ¡°We have a kind of ¡®Harvard-itis¡¯.¡±

Echoing critics such as University of Cambridge economist Marginson also argues that 바카라사이트 rise of higher education has not been driven primarily by greater demand for education from employers and 바카라사이트 economy.

Instead, 바카라사이트 huge growth in university attendance has been ¡°powered by 바카라사이트 ambitions of families for social position and of students for self-realisation¡±, his paper argues.

Higher education becomes ¡°entrenched as 바카라사이트 route to a middle class life¡±, and as a result families begin to see it as essential to maintain 바카라사이트ir social status, he writes.

david.mat바카라사이트ws@tesglobal.com