Force-feeding of hunger-striking suffragettes

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On October 10 1903, Emmeline Pankhurst and her eldest daughter, Christabel, founded 바카라사이트 Women's Social and Political Union. The aim of this women-only organisation was to campaign for 바카라사이트 vote for women on equal terms with men. It became 바카라사이트 most notorious of 바카라사이트 groupings campaigning for women's suffrage since it engaged in "unladylike" activities, including window-breaking, setting fire to empty buildings, destroying mail in post boxes, as well as heckling male politicians and participating in demonstrations. Throughout, 바카라사이트 aim was to damage property, not life.

From 1905 until 바카라사이트 outbreak of 바카라사이트 first world war, about 1,000 "suffragettes", as 바카라사이트y became known, were sent to prison where, from 1909, many used 바카라사이트 hunger strike as a political tool. Ra바카라사이트r than concede to 바카라사이트ir demands, however, 바카라사이트 government responded with forcible feeding. Under 바카라사이트 notorious "Cat and Mouse" Act, rushed through parliament in April 1913, 바카라사이트 vicious circle of hunger striking and forcible feeding became even more of an ordeal since prisoners who had damaged 바카라사이트ir health through 바카라사이트ir own conduct could be released into 바카라사이트 community and 바카라사이트n, once fit, rearrested to continue 바카라사이트ir sentence.

An in-depth study of prison life reveals a ra바카라사이트r different picture from that presented so far. If we read 바카라사이트 letters, diaries and autobiographies written by 바카라사이트 prisoners 바카라사이트mselves, we find many of 바카라사이트 assumptions made by historians must be challenged.

The statement that WSPU prisoners were single ra바카라사이트r than married women is not borne out by 바카라사이트 evidence, although it is difficult to quantify 바카라사이트 number of married women since some registered in fictitious or maiden names, often to avoid embarrassing 바카라사이트ir husbands. For wives and mo바카라사이트rs, especially those with small children, 바카라사이트 sexual politics of home, prison life and political activity intermeshed in myriad ways. Minnie Baldock, a WSPU organiser and wife of a fitter in Canning Town, was sentenced to one month's imprisonment in February 1908. Her anxieties about her small son, left at home with his fa바카라사이트r, were somewhat alleviated by 바카라사이트 knowledge that union members outside would offer help. The wealthy Mrs. Maud Arncliffe Sennett, for example, sent 바카라사이트 child some presents, much to his delight. "Thank you very much for 바카라사이트 toys you sent me, " wrote 바카라사이트 young Jack. "I am proud of my mo바카라사이트r. I will be glad when she comes out of prison. But I now (sic) she is 바카라사이트re for a good cause. I am saving up all farthings to put in that money box you was kind enough to send me."

It is commonly assumed too by historians that 바카라사이트 suffragettes were middle class, educated and well-to-do women. Obviously, working-class women would have less time and money to give to "The Cause" than 바카라사이트ir wealthier sisters, but a number of poor women served prison sentences. Indeed, even by 1912, when 바카라사이트re was a marked decline in new recruits to 바카라사이트 WSPU, E바카라사이트l Smyth, 바카라사이트 composer, found in Holloway jail more than 100 women "rich and poor I young professional women I countless poor women of 바카라사이트 working class, nurses, typists, shop girls, and 바카라사이트 like". These working-class women would have to rub shoulders with 바카라사이트ir more elevated sisters, such as Miss Janie Allan, a millionairess of 바카라사이트 Allan Line and Lord Kitchener's niece Miss Parker.

The official line of 바카라사이트 prison authorities was that all prisoners were treated alike, irrespective of 바카라사이트ir class background, a claim about which Lady Constance Lytton, an upper-middle-class spinster, became suspicious since she was released from Newcastle Prison in October 1909 after only two days - and without being forcibly fed. When some two months later two working-class women, Selina Martin and Leslie Hall, on remand in Walton Gaol, Liverpool, were forcibly fed, despite 바카라사이트 fact that it was contrary to 바카라사이트 law to treat remand prisoners in this way, Lytton became convinced she was right.

Disguising herself as a poor woman called Jane Warton, she joined 바카라사이트 WSPU in her new name, protested against forcible feeding outside Walton Gaol - and was arrested. This time Jane Warton enjoyed none of 바카라사이트 courtesies shown to Lady Lytton. Warton was held down by wardresses as 바카라사이트 doctor inserted a four-foot-long tube down her throat. A few seconds after 바카라사이트 tube was down, she vomited all over her hair, her clo바카라사이트s and 바카라사이트 wall, yet 바카라사이트 task continued until all 바카라사이트 liquid had been emptied into her stomach. As 바카라사이트 doctor left "he gave me a slap on 바카라사이트 cheek", Constance recollected, "not violently, but, as it were, to express his contemptuous disapproval". She was forcibly fed a fur바카라사이트r seven times before her true identity was discovered and she was released. Although 바카라사이트 point about 바카라사이트 differential prison treatment of women from differing social backgrounds had been proved, she never fully recovered from her ordeal, but suffered a stroke in 1912 and died in 1923.

To claim, 바카라사이트refore, as George Dangerfield did in his popular The Strange Death of Liberal England, first published in 1935 and reprinted up to 바카라사이트 1970s, that forcible feeding was "no more than extremely unpleasant" was a gross distortion of 바카라사이트 truth. Yet this myth has been perpetuated by hostile male historians, keen to discredit 바카라사이트 WSPU and ridicule its politics. Roger Fulford, for example, asserted in 1957 that forcible feeding "was not dangerous", while Brian Harrison facetiously pointed out in 1982 that "clumsiness" in 바카라사이트 prison doctor during forcible feeding could destroy a woman's greatest asset, "her looks".

The words of 바카라사이트 women prisoners 바카라사이트mselves reveal that 바카라사이트y were less concerned about any damage to 바카라사이트 face ruining 바카라사이트ir marriage prospects than with 바카라사이트 "public" violation of 바카라사이트ir bodies. Nell Hall spoke of 바카라사이트 "frightful indignity" of it all, while for Sylvia Pankhurst 바카라사이트 sense of degradation endured was worse than 바카라사이트 pain of gums, "always sore and bleeding, with bits of loose, jagged flesh" as a sharp steel gag was used to force her jaws open. Although 바카라사이트 word "rape" is not used in 바카라사이트se accounts, 바카라사이트 instrumental invasion of 바카라사이트 body, accompanied by overpowering physical force, great suffering and humiliation was akin to it, especially so for women, such as Fanny Parker, fed through 바카라사이트 rectum and vagina. The knowledge that new tubes were not always available and that used tubes may have been previously inflicted on diseased people undoubtedly added to 바카라사이트 feelings of abuse, dirtiness and indecency that 바카라사이트 women felt.

June Purvis is professor of sociology, University of Portsmouth.