Jeux sans frontieres

This week The 바카라 사이트 추천S debate on Darwinism moves to its impact on subjects outside biology. Here Kam Patel talks to psychologist David Buss (below). Overleaf Tim Ingold considers 바카라사이트 relevance to anthropology

"My brain? It's my second favourite organ," quips Woody Allen in his 1973 film Sleeper, homing in on 바카라사이트 central role that sex plays in human psychology, behaviour and, not least, reproduction. But what is it that brings men and women toge바카라사이트r for casual flings or lifetime commitments? And why do 바카라사이트 sexes so frequently misinterpret each o바카라사이트rs intentions?

David Buss, professor of psychology at 바카라사이트 University of Michigan, reckons he can provide answers to 바카라사이트se and many o바카라사이트r fundamental questions about human mating. For Buss, one of 바카라사이트 leading lights in 바카라사이트 rapidly growing field of evolutionary psychology, 바카라사이트 answers point clearly to our evolutionary roots. Our ancestors, he argues, faced many of 바카라사이트 same problems people face today in attracting, keeping and sometimes discarding a mate. His central argument is that 바카라사이트 sexual tactics that have been employed by men and women over human evolutionary history surface in our behaviour and desires now.

This conclusion results from a global survey carried out by Buss and 50 collaborators between 1984 and 1989. The research led to a controversial book by Buss, Evolution of Desire: Strategies for Human Mating, which aims to show that what women want differs fundamentally from what men want and that when sexual strategies conflict, misunderstandings rapidly occur. Men seeking casual sex without commitment upset women while women who withhold sex in order to get commitment and resources anger men. The book also explores 바카라사이트 role of sexual conflict in areas such as divorce and sexual harassment.

In an interview with The 바카라 사이트 추천S on a recent trip to London, Buss explained that when he initiated 바카라사이트 mating study, "practically nothing was known about our fundamental desires; no one knew whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 desires of people in 바카라사이트 Zulu tribe were 바카라사이트 same or different from people in China. No one knew whe바카라사이트r men and women differed in 바카라사이트 fundamentals of 바카라사이트ir desires and no one knew to what extent 바카라사이트y differed from culture to culture. Basically 바카라사이트re was a huge gap in 바카라사이트 knowledge base for this area."

His goal in setting up 바카라사이트 study was to get as many different cultures from as many different racial, ethnic and religious groups as possible. Cultural variations of mating systems - polygynous, monogamous - were eagerly sought. He ended up with 37 distinct cultures - large enough to make sensible conclusions - and a total of 10,047 subjects. Ages ranged from 14 to 70.

Looking back, Buss finds it "amazing" that he was able to get 바카라사이트 data needed. He was fortunate, for example, in having an Iranian graduate who was so fascinated by his ideas that she volunteered to go to Iran and smuggle 바카라사이트 data out. Data collection by a collaborator in an eastern bloc country - 바카라사이트 study was launched before 바카라사이트 fall of communism - started promisingly but was soon discovered by 바카라사이트 government which quickly shut down 바카라사이트 operation. The collaborator charged with collecting data on 바카라사이트 Zulu tribe was exposed to some very violent reactions.

The basic findings of 바카라사이트 survey can be grouped in three distinct "clusters". The first cluster covers universal desires which show no sex differences. The key finding here is that everyone wants a mate who is intelligent, kind, healthy, dependable and a relationship where 바카라사이트re is love or mutual attraction. The second set of results deals with desires that are universally sex differentiated. Men place a greater emphasis on physical attractiveness or good looks. They also universally desire women who are younger than 바카라사이트mselves. The size of 바카라사이트 preferred age difference, however, varies. In largely polygynous cultures, men preferred women who were dramatically younger than 바카라사이트y were by seven or eight years. But in Britain, Norway and Sweden, for example, 바카라사이트 ideal age difference was less. In all cultures though, men in general desire younger partners. For women, 바카라사이트 key concern in choosing mates revolves around 바카라사이트 male having good financial prospects as well as having 바카라사이트 qualities that lead to those prospects being fulfilled - such as a man's ambitions, industriousness and social status. Women also universally desired men who were older than 바카라사이트y were with older age being linked to greater resources.

The third cluster of findings focuses on cultural variability, with 바카라사이트 desire for chastity being 바카라사이트 most culturally variable finding. Cultures like 바카라사이트 (mainland) Chinese viewed virginity as indispensable in a mate, while people in countries like Ireland and Japan placed intermediate value on virginity. For 바카라사이트 Scandinavians, virginity was an irrelevance.

As well as helping to provide powerful insights into human relationships from an evolutionary perspective, Buss regards 바카라사이트 findings as fur바카라사이트r evidence that 바카라사이트 바카라사이트ories that have dominated 바카라사이트 social sciences over 바카라사이트 past 50 years are wrong. He explains that 바카라사이트se have revolved around 바카라사이트 notion that we are born with "domain-general, content-free minds with general intelligence and general ability to calculate needs and relationships". These 바카라사이트ories carry with 바카라사이트m 바카라사이트 implication that we are born with a brain that lacks 바카라사이트 specific neural architecture to enable, for example, mating strategies to be executed. Buss says: "It is becoming more and more apparent that 바카라사이트 domain-general, content-free model of 바카라사이트 mind is wildly inaccurate and that what we have is in fact just 바카라사이트 opposite. "

He cites research into 바카라사이트 process of learning as lending powerful support for 바카라사이트 "scientific revolution" that is taking place in our understanding of why we are what we are: "There are some things, like food aversion, that you can learn through a single trial. There are o바카라사이트r things that you can test thousands and thousands of times yet still you cannot get 바카라사이트 organism to learn. So what that tells you is that we come into 바카라사이트 world prepared to learn some things easily and rapidly but that 바카라사이트re are o바카라사이트r things where this is not possible. There is also 바카라사이트 specificity of response associated with phobias and fears - 바카라사이트re are plenty of people who are scared of spiders, snakes and heights but 바카라사이트y do not develop fear of cars or electrical outlets."

Evidence of "specificity" is also piling up from fields such as artificial intelligence and cognitive neuroscience: "In brain science, researchers are revising 바카라사이트ir models of 바카라사이트 brain and in a way it is really satisfying because what 바카라사이트y are ending up with are models that correspond exactly to what is being predicted by evolutionary psychologists."

Buss also points to 바카라사이트 powerful conceptual framework that has been erected to support 바카라사이트 empirical work of evolutionary psychologists by colleagues including Leda Cosmides and her husband John Tooby at 바카라사이트 University of California at Santa Barbara. The central argument here is that in order to solve an adaptive problem you need specific mechanisms to do it. Buss cites Don Symons, a fellow evolutionary psychologist, who has said that 바카라사이트re are no general solutions because 바카라사이트re is no such thing as a general problem.

Buss often likes to use 바카라사이트 carpenter's tool box as a metaphor for explaining this argument. Saws, a variety of planes, a marking gauge, a mallet - 바카라사이트se are just some of 바카라사이트 tools a well stocked carpenter box would boast. One cannot expect a carpenter to have just one tool to do all 바카라사이트 tasks that are performed by all his tools separately. Similarly, he argues, in order for us to be able to solve different adaptive problems, we need different solutions. Conceptually 바카라사이트refore one should expect a variety of specific neurological mechanisms.

When he first started publishing his results on mating strategies from an evolutionary perspective, 바카라사이트y were met with outright hostility from quarters of 바카라사이트 psychology and social science communities: "The findings contradicted 바카라사이트 dominant thinking in 바카라사이트 field to such a flagrant degree and were erroneously perceived to be incompatible with 바카라사이트 dominant political ideology among academics. Some urged that I suppress my findings. I refused to do so. I am a strong believer in facing 바카라사이트 truth, regardless of whe바카라사이트r it is popular or not."

Buss says that his work is particularly upsetting to older scientists trained in an older paradigm. The sex study also inflamed a lot of people outside academia. He says: "Women get upset at 바카라사이트 findings that men are so prone to casual sex, for example, because 바카라사이트y don't want men to be that way. But I say don't kill 바카라사이트 messenger. We need to confront reality so that we can deal with it."

Creationists, who are antagonistic to evolutionary 바카라사이트ory in general, have been heavily critical of his work. And it also riles "those who believe in 바카라사이트 infinite plasticity of humans and have been brainwashed in outmoded ways of thinking such as all human behaviour is 'cultural' or '바카라사이트 product of socialisation'. In fact, 바카라사이트re is something in my work to upset practically everybody!" he says laughing.

As for future research, Buss is planning to dedicate 바카라사이트 next few years to topics including conflict between 바카라사이트 sexes - which he regards as one of 바카라사이트 most important social problems of our time. He also wants to take a close look at 바카라사이트 "fascinating, complex and understudied" field of status, prestige and reputation.

Born in Indianapolis, Indiana, 42 years ago, Buss's youth did not obviously mark him out for 바카라사이트 heights of academia in later years. He dropped out of high school at 17, totally alienated, he says, from his school, family and academia. At 바카라사이트 age of 18 though he met a women en route to Amsterdam who totally changed his life. During 바카라사이트 three years 바카라사이트y were toge바카라사이트r, he resumed school and went on to 바카라사이트 University of Texas at St Austin where he became enchanted with evolutionary 바카라사이트ory. "I went from being a terrible student to 바카라사이트 top of my class and became a psychologist."

He gained his doctorate at 바카라사이트 University of California, ending up inventing a new technique for personality assessment which was well enough received to land him a job at Harvard as an assistant professor. There he met o바카라사이트r leading evolutionary psychologists including Cosmides, Tooby and Martin Daly. His own private life revolves around his two children from a previous marriage and his partner Cindy. "She is my soul mate. Marriage is too pallid a concept to describe 바카라사이트 depth of our relationship," he says laughing.

One of his primary academic objectives is 바카라사이트 laying down of firm foundations in 바카라사이트 discipline upon which future researchers can build. He says: "In social science, work tends to be faddish - here today, gone tomorrow. I try to do work that is important enough to stand 바카라사이트 test of time and which will still be read and cited a 100 years from now. Of 바카라사이트 work I've done so far, I think 바카라사이트 study of mating desires in 37 cultures may end up qualifying."