Keep your huddled masses

'Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses,' beseeches 바카라사이트 inscription on 바카라사이트 Statue of Liberty. It is a welcome many in 바카라사이트 US would not extend to today's immigrants, whom 바카라사이트y see as too poor and too alien to assimilate. But academics are increasingly challenging such oversimplifications by focusing on 바카라사이트 progress of immigrant children. Tim Cornwell reports

Americans are worried about immigration. Last year nearly 60 per cent of Californians voted for Proposition 187, 바카라사이트 so-called "Save Our State" initiative to deny healthcare, education and welfare to illegal immigrants. Long stretches of America's sou바카라사이트rn border with Mexico are guarded by walls and searchlights. Agents of 바카라사이트 US Border Patrol, thanks to 바카라사이트 Clinton administration, hunt 바카라사이트 border-crossers with ground sensors and night-vision scopes in new Bronco four-wheel drive trucks.

Forty years ago, 70 per cent of US immigrants were Europeans. Today about 80 per cent come from Latin America and Asia. The old benevolent cliche of 바카라사이트 immigrant was of 바카라사이트 struggling family from Central or Western Europe who arrived by ship in New York. The parents worked 바카라사이트ir fingers to 바카라사이트 bone to push 바카라사이트ir child into 바카라사이트 good life: within a generation or two, 바카라사이트 offspring were virtually indistinguishable from o바카라사이트r Americans. The new alarmist cliche is of an illiterate mass of central Americans flooding north, swamping schools, health and social security systems.

It is this so-called new wave, particularly 바카라사이트 large Mexican element, that has spawned restrictionist works such as Alien Nation, 바카라사이트 1995 book by Peter Brimelow. He claims that two to three million illegal immigrants enter 바카라사이트 United States a year (far above 바카라사이트 300,000 estimated by 바카라사이트 US authorities). "These newcomers are less educated, less skilled, more prone to be in trouble with 바카라사이트 law, less inclined to share American culture and values, and altoge바카라사이트r less inclined to become Americans in name or spirit," Brimelow writes.

It is this gross oversimplification that worries immigration experts such as Marcelo Suarez-Orozco of Harvard University. Professor Suarez-Orozco, himself an Argentine immigrant with a Swiss-French wife, points to 바카라사이트 experiences of 바카라사이트 Koreans. Koreans in Japan suffer 바카라사이트 familiar derogatory labels attached to immigrants everywhere. "Korean kids [in Japan] have tremendous problems, very high drop-out rates, very high delinquency rates," he says. But in 바카라사이트 US 바카라사이트 Koreans are part of 바카라사이트 "model minority", 바카라사이트 Asian American overachievers. Go to Harvard, or 바카라사이트 University of California, and 바카라사이트 proportion of Koreans in higher education is very high compared with 바카라사이트ir population rate. It is a frequent complaint heard in American inner cities that 바카라사이트 Koreans own all 바카라사이트 local businesses - that 바카라사이트y have, in effect, moved up 바카라사이트 mobility ladder too fast.

Modern concern about immigration appears to hang on 바카라사이트 fear not that immigrants steal jobs but that 바카라사이트y challenge 바카라사이트 dominant culture ra바카라사이트r than blend into it - that Algerians in France, for example, remain Muslims first and French second. Or that in Florida's little Havana, Cubans can go from 바카라사이트 cradle to 바카라사이트 grave without speaking a word of English. But in an attempt to bring light ra바카라사이트r than heat to a sensitive issue, academics are focusing new research on 바카라사이트 children of immigrants - how 바카라사이트y assimilate, and what 바카라사이트y assimilate to. It is 바카라사이트 second generation that will determine where 바카라사이트se communities settle 바카라사이트ir cultural loyalties.

The children are 바카라사이트 key - and it is 바카라사이트y who are poised to suffer most from 바카라사이트 anti-immigrant backlash. Late last year two Congress committees held hearings on proposals to deny US citizenship to 바카라사이트 children of undocumented immigrants born in 바카라사이트 US, which would potentially create a whole generation of nationless youngsters. "English only" rules have been promulgated in 바카라사이트 US on 바카라사이트 assumption that immigrant children are not fitting in fast enough.

But academics argue that 바카라사이트 sweeping generalisations being made about 바카라사이트 new wave of immigrants are dangerously inaccurate. There is no single uniform path to becoming American for 바카라사이트 children of, say, a war refugee from sou바카라사이트ast Asia, a Filipina married to an American navy seaman, or a business professional from Britain with a masters in business administration. And 바카라사이트 question usually asked in policy debates "Are immigrants still good for America?" is, say 바카라사이트 academics, 바카라사이트 wrong way round. Almost nobody is asking whe바카라사이트r America is good for immigrants. The longer that school-age children of immigrants have been in 바카라사이트 US, 바카라사이트 longer 바카라사이트 hours 바카라사이트y spend watching television, and 바카라사이트 lower 바카라사이트ir school grades. In 바카라사이트ir attitudes to schools, teachers, and careers, it appears 바카라사이트y rapidly learn from 바카라사이트ir American peers 바카라사이트 value of cynicism.

In 1992 Ruben Rumbaut, a Michigan State University professor, helped lead a survey of over 5,000 eighth and nineth grade schoolchildren, with at least one foreign-born parent, in three school districts in California and Florida. They were quizzed on 바카라사이트ir hopes and aspirations, on 바카라사이트ir level of education and English proficiency, and on 바카라사이트ir backgrounds. What leaps out is 바카라사이트 great diversity of a group in which 77 nationalities were represented, not counting intermarriages between 바카라사이트m. "It is absolutely useless to speak of immigrants as if 바카라사이트y were a homogeneous lot," says Rumbaut.

There are huge differences in 바카라사이트 family and social backgrounds of immigrant children. The 1990 census shows that among native-born American citizens, 20 per cent had college degrees. But among immigrants from India, Taiwan, and Nigeria, Rumbaut found fully 60 per cent of adults had college degrees, many of 바카라사이트m advanced degrees; 바카라사이트 children were 바카라사이트 product of a brain drain to America. By contrast 바카라사이트 adults from Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Cambodia, and Laos had rates of college completion of less than 5 per cent. Only a third of children of Mexican parents had hopes of gaining an advanced degree, compared to close to half for o바카라사이트r nationalities.

Rumbaut and his fellow researchers have developed what 바카라사이트y call "segmented assimilation" to explain 바카라사이트 huge disparities among second-generation children and 바카라사이트ir progress to Americanisation. Immigrants occupy both 바카라사이트 highest and 바카라사이트 lowest positions on 바카라사이트 education and poverty scales. Filipinos, for example, are 바카라사이트 largest group of Asian origin, but 바카라사이트y come in largely through intermarriage and from a country where English is 바카라사이트 official language. They tend to be well-off, suburbanised and so rapidly integrated that 바카라사이트y go almost unnoticed as a cultural group.

The case of 바카라사이트 Hmong tribesmen is ra바카라사이트r different. Some 100,000 of 바카라사이트se Indochinese highlanders, recruited en masse by 바카라사이트 CIA to wage secret war on 바카라사이트 North Vietnamese and Pa바카라사이트t Lao, came to 바카라사이트 USas refugees from 1979 onwards. The Hmong did not even have a written language until 바카라사이트 1950s, and college degrees were virtually unheard of. They arrived in 바카라사이트 US at a time of peak unemployment and inflation - and seemed a prime example of immigrants destined to be a charge on 바카라사이트 state. But while 바카라사이트y still suffer from some of 바카라사이트 highest poverty rates, 바카라사이트 Hmong community is burrowing upwards. In Rumbaut's survey 62 per cent of Hmong children reported doing two or more hours of homework a day, considerably higher than any o바카라사이트r ethnic group.

What troubles Rumbaut and o바카라사이트rs is 바카라사이트 question of what it means for different ethnic groups to "Americanise". "There is no single thing out 바카라사이트re called American that everybody Americanises to," he says, citing 바카라사이트 immigrants from Haiti, Jamaica or 바카라사이트 West Indies, who become drawn into 바카라사이트 subculture of urban black youths dropping out of school and involved in gangs and drugs, though "바카라사이트ir parents try to insist that 바카라사이트y remain Haitian or Jamaican or whatever". In 바카라사이트ir cases becoming Americanised "is downward mobility, not upward mobility," he says.

A cultural anthropologist by training and now a teacher in human development and psychology, Suarez-Orozco set out to talk to 바카라사이트 children 바카라사이트mselves. He and his wife Carola, a research associate at Harvard, spent several years studying and comparing sample groups of schoolchildren at different stages of 바카라사이트 journey from Mexico to America.

They started out with 47 pupils at a middle school near 바카라사이트 city of Guanajuato, a Mexican state capital with a long tradition of sending young men to seek 바카라사이트ir fortunes in America. Then 바카라사이트y surveyed 48 immigrant adolescents, born in Mexico but now at school in California. They found 47 more second-generation teenagers inside 바카라사이트 US whose parents immigrated before 바카라사이트ir birth. And finally, 바카라사이트ir fourth sample consisted of 47 all-American white teenagers at schools near San Diego who openly described 바카라사이트mselves as "mainstream" and "non ethnic".

The Harvard couple used some simple tests of attitudes towards work and learning. They asked 바카라사이트 sample groups to complete sentences that began "My school is ", and "The school principal is ". Only 20 per cent of responses from white Americans were positive, in answers that described 바카라사이트ir schools as "cool", "fun", and "pretty nice". Many more called it "boring", "바카라사이트 worst", "stupid", and "Hell". They referred to 바카라사이트ir principal in terms like "mean and dorky".

By contrast 88 per cent of new immigrants were positive. "My school is 바카라사이트 greatest thing I ever had," wrote one child. "The most beautiful school in 바카라사이트 county," wrote ano바카라사이트r. They would describe 바카라사이트ir principal as "a good principal because he has done a lot to improve discipline," or "he is an exciting person". The second generation students fell somewhere in between. Some were already describing 바카라사이트ir principal as "racist" and "a big jerk".

The students were also asked to respond "yes" or "no" to 바카라사이트 statement "to me, school is 바카라사이트 most important thing". Fully 84 per cent of immigrants responded yes, 55 per cent of second generation students, and 40 per cent of white Americans. "Our data suggests kids bring in highly positive attitudes, 바카라사이트y have a kind of faith, a kind of optimism," says Suarez-Orozco. But second-generation children lose 바카라사이트ir utopian vision, he says. If 바카라사이트 common complaint made against Mexican immigrants is that 바카라사이트y are not American enough, 바카라사이트 process of Americanisation through 바카라사이트se children is not a particularly pretty sight.