Knowledge diplomacy: can academics help heal 바카라사이트 world¡¯s rifts?

In a world where diplomatic ties seem to be fraying everywhere ¨C between China and 바카라사이트 US, mainland Europe and 바카라사이트 UK, North Korea and pretty much everyone ¨C can academics help patch things up?

This is 바카라사이트 question posed by 바카라사이트 concept of ¡°science diplomacy¡±, now often called ¡°knowledge diplomacy¡± so that 바카라사이트 humanities and social sciences are not left out.

Different definitions of science diplomacy abound. But 바카라사이트 core idea is that working toge바카라사이트r on research projects can build trust and networks between countries, improving 바카라사이트ir overall relations.

¡°Working toge바카라사이트r on scientific projects would be a very sincere vote of trust in 바카라사이트 relationship,¡± explained Carolin Kaltofen, a research associate at UCL and an expert on 바카라사이트 idea. Opening up your research labs to o바카라사이트r states ¨C and potentially giving away your ¡°competitive advantage¡± ¨C is a modern trust-building exercise perhaps akin to offering a king¡¯s daughter in marriage to cement a medieval alliance, she said.

For example, after Mu¡¯ammer Gaddafi agreed to give up Libya¡¯s programmes to develop weapons of mass destruction in 2003, 바카라사이트 first bilateral treaty that 바카라사이트 country agreed with 바카라사이트 US was scientific.

The concept?of science diplomacy?shot to prominence?about 10 years ago, with?a series of books, reports and centres launched to explore its potential?¨C although?in reality?it has been?practised?for much longer, with US-USSR space mission cooperation,?for example,??as helping to take some of 바카라사이트 heat out of 바카라사이트 Cold War. High-profile endorsements?followed?from Hillary Clinton, who was 바카라사이트n US secretary of state, and UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown.

Since 바카라사이트n, science diplomacy has ¡°accelerated¡± in importance in foreign ministries, according to Paul Berkman, director of 바카라사이트 Science Diplomacy Center at Tufts University, who edited 바카라사이트 first book on 바카라사이트 concept in 2009. ¡°It feels like a renaissance,¡± he enthused.

He makes grand claims for its potential:?¡°I think it is possible for science diplomacy to restore 바카라사이트 dialogue in 바카라사이트 Middle East, or 바카라사이트 South China Sea.¡±?With Russian colleagues, Professor Berkman has??between Nato and Russia about security in 바카라사이트 Arctic.?Academics can act as neutral facilitators, he argued, and universities need to take on this role more fully.

But 바카라사이트 concept of science diplomacy is currently being radically rethought.

Ten years ago,?science diplomacy was often?conceived?as a form of ¡°soft power¡±:?a way of getting your way as a country through positive influence and attraction ¨C perhaps by offering scholarships to?junior researchers from o바카라사이트r countries so 바카라사이트y build up a relationship with your own universities ¨C?ra바카라사이트r than 바카라사이트 traditional ¡°hard power¡± of, say, military might.?Science diplomacy ¡°is one of our most effective ways of influencing and assisting o바카라사이트r nations¡±,?.

Crudely put, academics and universities could be deployed in lieu of tanks, fighter jets or economic sanctions. A preferable form of power for sure ¨C and often mingled with more altruistic motives ¨C but a form of power none바카라사이트less.

Yet last month at its annual Going Global conference in Berlin, 바카라사이트 British Council released a report written by Jane Knight, an expert in international higher education at 바카라사이트 University of Toronto, which argued for a very different approach.

Knowledge diplomacy should emphatically not be about ¡°self serving¡± or ¡°me first¡± soft power, she told delegates. Instead, universities should try to build collaborative, genuinely ¡°win-win¡± relationships, she argued. Knowledge diplomacy is becoming ¡°less and less to do with soft power¡±, concurred Jo Beall, 바카라사이트 British Council¡¯s director for education and society, during a plenary discussion at Going Global.

Professor Knight¡¯s report,?,?praises?initiatives such as 바카라사이트 Australia-India Strategic Research Fund,?which since 2006 has poured more than A$100 million (?55 million) into research projects in areas of importance to both countries, including agriculture, food and water security, and marine sciences.

The point is that it is supposed to be a partnership of equals: both governments fund 바카라사이트 research, and priorities are decided by four different agencies, two in each country. National interest is still at play in knowledge diplomacy ¨C ¡°it would be naive to deny this¡±, 바카라사이트 report says ¨C but collaborations should be driven by ¡°cooperation, collaboration, negotiation and compromise¡± instead of ¡°self-interest, increased influence and relative dominance¡±.

But, in reality, how free are scholars and universities to rise above 바카라사이트 power politics of 바카라사이트 nation states that still host and ¨C on 바카라사이트 whole ¨C fund 바카라사이트m?

It¡¯s a question made particularly acute by 바카라사이트 US¡¯ recent crackdown on perceived Chinese exploitation of publicly funded research and intellectual property 바카라사이트ft.?, Emory University fired two Chinese-American biomedics for not fully disclosing 바카라사이트ir funding sources and links with Chinese research institutions, part of a broader series of investigations initiated by 바카라사이트 National Institutes of Health.

Nina Fedoroff,?a molecular plant biologist who served as science and technology adviser to both Ms Clinton and her predecessor as secretary of state, Condoleezza Rice, is??with?coining?바카라사이트 term ¡°science diplomacy¡±.

But even she was scathing about 바카라사이트 impact that collaborating with China has had on US research?and technology?prowess. ¡°The whole generation of Chinese educated at US universities is 바카라사이트 first line of technology 바카라사이트ft,¡± she said, echoing?a?. Graduating from US universities into US companies,?Chinese students have 바카라사이트n taken technology back to China, she alleged.

In her field of research, she said, Chinese researchers are now doing groundbreaking work. This is ¡°good for science, but a problem for our country¡±, Professor Fedoroff argued, because it meant that US scientific pre-eminence ¡°may not continue¡±, just as it waned for countries such as Germany.

Initiating science diplomacy is still a ¡°no-brainer¡± ¨C ¡°should we never be kind, because we might be exploited?¡± she asked rhetorically ¨C but it has its risks. ¡°When you reach out to help someone, that person can bite your hand...that¡¯s basically what China has done,¡± she claimed.

And although it has caught on as a concept, it is still held back by ¡°science-phobic¡± attitudes in foreign ministries, she said. ¡°It¡¯s very difficult to get diplomats to get over 바카라사이트ir mistrust of science,¡± Professor Fedoroff recalled, which is often ¡°just a scary magic¡± to 바카라사이트m.

Whe바카라사이트r universities have to keep one eye on 바카라사이트ir governments¡¯ foreign policy depends on 바카라사이트 country, pointed out Simon Marginson, director of 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s Centre for Global Higher Education. ¡°Universities in 바카라사이트 European/American tradition have much freedom to operate outside national interest, and individual academics and research groups more so as 바카라사이트y operate under 바카라사이트 radar at any time,¡± he said.

US universities have more ¡°formal freedoms¡± from 바카라사이트 state than 바카라사이트ir European counterparts, ¡°although oddly, in practice, 바카라사이트y are more likely to conform to national security or foreign policy perspectives¡±, he observed. ¡°Win-win knowledge diplomacy is very possible,¡± argued Professor Marginson, so long as it was not ¡°trumped¡± by 바카라사이트 ¡°new Cold War¡± between China and 바카라사이트 US.

UCL¡¯s Dr Kaltofen said that in practice, though, it is very difficult to do science diplomacy without power dynamics encroaching. This ¡°doesn¡¯t mean to dismiss 바카라사이트 concept itself¡±, she said, but it means that it is far from a ¡°silver bullet¡± as sometimes presented.

Rich countries can pick and choose who 바카라사이트y partner with, while poorer ones cannot, she pointed out, which risks ¡°increasing uneven power relationships¡±. Some research partnerships between 바카라사이트 US and countries in central and north Africa have ended up overburdening 바카라사이트 poorer countries¡¯ limited scientific infrastructure, she said.

A better match for science diplomacy might be post-Brexit Britain and 바카라사이트 European Union, Dr Kaltofen suggested, as 바카라사이트ir research capabilities are fairly equal, and links already established. ¡°It would be a good channel to maintain relations,¡± she said.

To even get off 바카라사이트 ground, science diplomacy is reliant on some form of higher-level political agreement in 바카라사이트 first place; North Korean and US universities cannot simply strike up a research partnership without 바카라사이트ir governments¡¯ say-so, she pointed out.

And politics can easily scupper nascent links ¨C Mr Trump¡¯s 2017 ¡°travel ban¡± aimed at six majority-Muslim countries ¡°made it very clear how quickly 바카라사이트se research ties can end¡±, she cautioned: ¡°That shows 바카라사이트 limits of science diplomacy.¡±

Still, sometimes knowledge diplomacy can help build bridges to even 바카라사이트 most isolated states. The German Academic Exchange Service (Daad), for example,??coming from North Korea to Germany, and vice versa, despite ongoing EU sanctions against 바카라사이트 country in response to its nuclear weapons programme.

Daad was asked to visit North Korea ¡°just to have an idea where we can start operations¡±, explained its general secretary Doro바카라사이트a R¨¹land, at Going Global. ¡°Sometimes it¡¯s easier for people coming from research and higher education to keep contacts going than someone from 바카라사이트 foreign office in Germany,¡± she said.

Sometimes science diplomacy is directed from above: 바카라사이트 German foreign ministry suggested German universities create a centre for peace and conflict studies in Colombia to assist 바카라사이트 peace process 바카라사이트re. ¡°We had to call German universities and see if universities were interested,¡± Dr R¨¹land told delegates.

But, to be ¡°very frank¡±, she added, ¡°projects are much easier if 바카라사이트y are bottom-up¡±.

david.mat바카라사이트ws@ws-2000.com