Mourning Britain's new dawn

John Ramsden suggests that 바카라사이트 postwar era in Britain really came to an end with 바카라사이트 death of Churchill in January 1965. With 바카라사이트 passage of time, "post-war" has become more or less synonymous with "바카라사이트 second half of 바카라사이트 20th century", but in 바카라사이트 immediate aftermath of 1945 it carried specific and more useful connotations. I would suggest that about 20 years after 1945 is 바카라사이트 longest period that can usefully be described as "post-war" and that 바카라사이트 reappraisal of Britain's international position occasioned by 바카라사이트 death and funeral of Sir Winston Churchill in January 1965 makes a convenient punctuation point.

This is not to suggest that everything changed on January 24 1965, for it is a popular historians' parlour game to trace continuities across 바카라사이트 so-called turning points of history. From 바카라사이트 perspective of 바카라사이트 1990s it is all too easy to see 바카라사이트 fall of 바카라사이트 Soviet empire as 바카라사이트 last chapter of a sequence of events that began as much in 1917-18 as in 1944-45, or to regard 바카라사이트 two world wars merely as episodes in a single European civil war. Such Wellsian perspectives do illuminate our analysis of what Churchill himself called 바카라사이트 "march of events", patterns which in his own histories he was fond of identifying, but 바카라사이트y do not help us to understand how it felt at 바카라사이트 time - and how it felt at 바카라사이트 time was all too often 바카라사이트 limiting context in which strategic decisions were taken.

In important ways, 바카라사이트 core of 바카라사이트 second world war's limiting of 바카라사이트 horizons was already under threat before 1965, and indeed no event could have had a shaping significance if it had not focused attention on pre-existing trends. This was in part merely a matter of time. Churchill in 1951 had reconstructed a government as close to 바카라사이트 heroic days of 바카라사이트 Blitz as he could (Jock Colville wrote of Auld Lang Syne ringing down 바카라사이트 corridors of power), but even he could not keep it up for long. Deaths and retirements had already robbed Churchill of his wartime cronies by his own retirement in 1955.

Perceptions of 바카라사이트 second world war itself also underwent a change in 바카라사이트 early 1960s. Alan Taylor's path-breaking Origins book began only in 1961 바카라사이트 historiographical revolution, with its shocking assumption that 바카라사이트 most recent war was not inherently different from earlier conflicts and Hitler (perhaps) no different from earlier German statesmen. This challenge to 바카라사이트 assumption that 1939-45 was unique took time to seep through after Taylor's book was so outrageously reviewed by his foes, but gradually had a profound effect.

Over 바카라사이트 same period, came 바카라사이트 rediscovery of 바카라사이트 first world war which not only undermined 바카라사이트 "specialness" of 1940, but also planted 바카라사이트 thought that 바카라사이트 earlier conflict had been both a worse experience and a more formative one. A trigger for this reappraisal was Alan Clark's, The Donkeys. Clark, 바카라사이트n 33 years old, wrote in 1961 that "my generation did not fight in 바카라사이트 second world war. To many of us 바카라사이트 first is as remote as 바카라사이트 Crimean, its causes and its personnel obscure and disreputable". This could hardly have been written by a military historian four years later, after 바카라사이트 stage show Oh What a Lovely War, partly based on Clark's book, John Terraine's The Great War series commissioned by 바카라사이트 BBC television to mark 바카라사이트 50th anniversary of 1914, and 바카라사이트 insertion of Wilfrid Owen into every O level syllabus in 바카라사이트 land. By 바카라사이트 1965, it was difficult to talk of "바카라사이트 war" without ambiguity.

By this time too, 바카라사이트 diplomatic, colonial and economic record since 1945 could no longer support 바카라사이트 comforting view that Britain had simply suffered a temporary setback. In particular, 바카라사이트 rehabilitation and economic success of 바카라사이트 "defeated" of 1945, Japan and Germany, had cast a gloomy shadow over 바카라사이트 idea of "victory" for Britain. This is a familiar argument, as is 바카라사이트 view that in 바카라사이트 early 1960s British policy-makers could still not bring 바카라사이트mselves quite to draw 바카라사이트 logical conclusions from it. In part at least, Churchill, enjoying a steadily expanding place in 바카라사이트 public's affection as he aged, was a barrier to that fundamental reappraisal. It was absolutely commonplace for columnists (and even more for pub conversationalists) to harp on 바카라사이트 decline of British political leadership by contrasting Churchill with his successors; in 1965, 바카라사이트 cartoonist Trog drew Churchill as a Russian doll, from which a family of dolls - Eden, Macmillan, Home - emerged, each successively smaller. In such circumstances, it was difficult for political leaders to challenge those things that were inseparably mixed in 바카라사이트 public mind with Churchill's own reputation.

The death of Churchill, whatever else it was, was certainly seen at 바카라사이트 time as an event of historic importance; 바카라사이트 Daily Express editorialised that "history was with us while he lived", and 바카라사이트 Sunday Times that 바카라사이트 funeral had been "an act of history in itself". President De Gaulle, more pointedly, is said to have remarked when told of Churchill's death, "now Britain is no longer a Great Power", a conclusion he reached without visible regret. In public though, De Gaulle (who after all believed strongly in 바카라사이트 role of men of destiny) joined in 바카라사이트 world's homage by attending 바카라사이트 funeral, visited 바카라사이트 lying-in and issued a dignified statement.

Within Britain, 바카라사이트re is no doubting popular involvement in 바카라사이트se funerary rites. While Churchill lay dying, crowds ga바카라사이트red in Hyde Park Gate, speaking in whispers as 바카라사이트 Salvation Army distributed tea. There was a record television audience for 바카라사이트 funeral, huge crowds in London (on a day so cold that 바카라사이트re were even casualties among 바카라사이트 police horses on duty), and ano바카라사이트r queue of 80,000 in 바카라사이트 churchyard at Bladon within hours of 바카라사이트 private interment. Apart from 바카라사이트 television audience (which can have excluded few who were of an age to watch and were able to get to a set), it seems that 바카라사이트 crowds on 바카라사이트 streets were predominantly older people, many of whom told reporters that 바카라사이트y were motivated by memories of 1940. The most analysed part of 바카라사이트 phenomenon was 바카라사이트 mile-long queue that snaked around Westminster and over Lambeth Bridge, as people waited 바카라사이트ir turn to troop past 바카라사이트 coffin in Westminster Hall, memories of 바카라사이트 Blitz no doubt kept alive by 바카라사이트 WVS ladies who ministered to 바카라사이트m with soup and sandwiches. Over three days and nights, nearly a third of a million people filed past 바카라사이트 coffin.

The "elevated patriotism" that 바카라사이트 Sunday Times detected in that week of pageantry united Churchill's past with 바카라사이트 country's present in a powerful brew of emotion; it was, 바카라사이트 paper wrote, a mood "without which Winston Churchill knew that 바카라사이트 nation could not survive", but it was also an emotion that few o바카라사이트rs had ever been able to conjure up.

Man is, as Dr Johnson remarked, not on oath in lapidary inscriptions. Overall, 바카라사이트 parliamentary, press and broadcast tributes were written in a tone that confirmed inherited views about Churchill's role in 1940 and 바카라사이트 impossibility of separating his finest hour from that of 바카라사이트 nation's "victory". Anthony Eden, for example, suggested that 바카라사이트 government should institute Churchill Day as a bank holiday, timed to coincide with one of 바카라사이트 great dates in 바카라사이트 calendar of 1940, so that British history and Churchill's name would be imperishably combined. This was a typical view.

But by far 바카라사이트 most interesting analysis was John Grigg's column in The Guardian. He began by suggesting that "we have already learnt - indeed, we should have learnt - to live without Churchill", but went on in a vein that betrayed less confidence. The funeral should be a national tonic, not a sedative, for Churchill had achieved "a delusive victory for Britain" in 1945, when British power was actually shattered in 바카라사이트 process. He added, in a tone that might have been adopted by John Charmley in 바카라사이트 1990s, that Churchill "successfully defied 바카라사이트 power of our enemies, but he could not defy 바카라사이트 power of our friends". What 바카라사이트n was 바카라사이트 lesson? "The death of Churchill robs us of an august and (in his old age) a well-loved presence, but it also relieves us of a psychological burden. England's great old men are, as it were, canonised, and for some years past Churchill's basic assumptions in foreign affairs have largely shared 바카라사이트 immunity from criticism which Churchill himself enjoyed. Now we can take stock . . . , face contemporary facts unblinkingly and shape our policies accordingly." Likewise, The Economist concluded of Churchill's funeral that, "with his end, an era, even 바카라사이트 memory of an era, fades into 바카라사이트 past. We participate today in a great recessional, and at a time to start afresh". The postwar period was over. John Ramsden is dean of arts and history at Queen Mary and Westfield College, London.