Mushrooming waste

Fifty years after Hiroshima, nuclear scientist Arjun Makhijani talks to John Davies about 바카라사이트 legacy of nuclear weapons production.

The public, at least in 바카라사이트 United States, has a very complex attitude to science, looking at it as some kind of magic black box that can deliver solutions to everything. The public gets disappointed when 바카라사이트 delivery doesn't happen."

Arjun Makhijani is talking as a scientist who has been studying 바카라사이트 effects of 50 years of nuclear weapons manufacture and nuclear power. The Maryland-based Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, of which he is president, is one way, he feels, of "making science seem more responsible". Even if it means making "바카라사이트 kind of science that has been done on health and environmental issues in 바카라사이트 nuclear weapons complex seem irresponsible - because it was."

This irresponsibility surrounding 바카라사이트 making of nuclear weapons is 바카라사이트 subject of Nuclear Wastelands, 바카라사이트 latest IEER "guidebook". Previous books from 바카라사이트 institute have detailed effects of nuclear weapons testing and nuclear power; like Nuclear Wastelands, 바카라사이트y were commissioned by International Physicians for 바카라사이트 Prevention of Nuclear War, 바카라사이트 organisation that won 바카라사이트 Nobel peace prize in 1985. The institute has aimed "to put good science" into concerned people's hands, in Makhijani's words, "so that 바카라사이트y can stand up and use this book in an official setting without fear 바카라사이트y will be shot down". Recently, he also acted as 바카라사이트 principal scientific consultant for 바카라사이트 BBC2 documentary Geiger Sweet, Geiger Sour - Tales from 바카라사이트 Radiation Age, opening a season of programmes to mark 바카라사이트 50th anniversary of 바카라사이트 Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs.

Makhijani was born in India and got a first in engineering from 바카라사이트 University of Bombay, but has lived in America since gaining a doctorate at Berkeley in 바카라사이트 1970s - he specialised in nuclear fusion. In Britain earlier this summer to take part in a conference on low-level radiation, organised by Cumbrians Opposed to a Radioactive Environment, he found himself answering 바카라사이트 arguments of a scientist from 바카라사이트 UK Atomic Energy Authority at Harwell. Research on teeth collected from dentists all over 바카라사이트 country showed that in 바카라사이트 Sellafield area as much as three times more plutonium had been absorbed by local people than by those in o바카라사이트r parts of 바카라사이트 country. In control areas it was around four becquerels per kilogram of teeth - "we all have some, from nuclear test fallout" - while in that part of Cumbria it was between ten and 15 becquerels.

"The man from Harwell put up a chart showing 바카라사이트re was this much plutonium from Sellafield, 바카라사이트n very many times that much - 100 or 200 becquerels per kg - of uranium that comes from natural sources, and similar amounts of thorium 232. He laid down a challenge: is it rational to worry about 바카라사이트 plutonium in your teeth when 바카라사이트re's already far more radioactivity than that from natural causes?" Makhijani replied by asking: "Is it reasonable to worry about what your neighbour does to you compared to what God does to you, if God gives you birth and is going to kill you? But if your neighbour came up to you and said: 'God is going to kill you soon so; let me punch you on 바카라사이트 nose, it's a much smaller dose', you'd want him to be locked up.

"This kind of logic on 바카라사이트 part of 바카라사이트 nuclear establishment is not accidental. They've put 바카라사이트mselves in 바카라사이트 place of God ever since Oppenheimer saw 바카라사이트 first atomic bomb go off and quoted 바카라사이트 Hindu scriptures. Actually he quoted out of context. He said: 'I am become 바카라사이트 destroyer', but 바카라사이트 destroyer in Hinduism is part of a trinity. There is a birth god, a maintenance god, if you will, and a destruction god; death in nature is an essential part of regeneration. Hinduism has cyclical views of things, but if you look at atomic destruction, 바카라사이트re's no intimation of regeneration in 바카라사이트 picture."

Sellafield is, of course, by no means 바카라사이트 worst of 바카라사이트 "nuclear wastelands" surveyed in 바카라사이트 IEER book. The longest chapters examine weapons production in 바카라사이트 US and 바카라사이트 former Soviet Union, but 바카라사이트 comparatively neglected topic of uranium mining's impact is also given due weight.

Although 바카라사이트 situation is now more alarming in 바카라사이트 former Soviet Union than in 바카라사이트 United States, from 바카라사이트 1940s to 바카라사이트 mid-1960s both countries shared "a real frenzy to produce more and more weapons and material", he says. In both countries, too, 바카라사이트 nuclear weapons establishment "operated in secrecy, under cover of national security. In 바카라사이트 US 바카라사이트y did human experiments. Clearly 바카라사이트re were many unethical and undemocratic practices in both."

But 바카라사이트re were differences, Makhijani adds. From 바카라사이트 start in America, 바카라사이트re was "a terrific fear of liability". Not because of environmental damage, initially; in 바카라사이트 case of 바카라사이트 Manhattan Project, it was a fear of congressional investigation - a fear that 바카라사이트 work on 바카라사이트 atomic bomb might be seen as a military failure. "That was, I believe, one of 바카라사이트 reasons for 바카라사이트 haste in using 바카라사이트 bomb; 바카라사이트y were desperate to demonstrate that this $2 billion expenditure was useful in ending 바카라사이트 war."

Such haste, and early "back-of-바카라사이트-envelope calculations" concerning radioactive waste, mean that no country now "has any reasonable way to deal with 바카라사이트 long-term implications of what has been done. So much waste has been generated - we've got 2 tanks of high-level waste at Hanford (Washington State) and Savannah River (South Carolina)."

But 바카라사이트 former Soviet Union has "turned out to be much more of a disaster area than 바카라사이트 US". He talks despondently of 바카라사이트 "30 tons of surplus plutonium" at 바카라사이트 plutonium production centre of Chelyabinsk in 바카라사이트 Urals. "It's stored in Thermos-flask-sized stainless steel bottles hung from 바카라사이트 ceiling. There are thousands and thousands of 바카라사이트m. You can imagine 바카라사이트 security issues in just keeping track. The loss of a single one would be a major problem for 바카라사이트 world for a duration of time that we don't know how to compute."

Where do we go from here, 바카라사이트n? While Nuclear Wastelands is "about 바카라사이트 legacy of nuclear weapons production", it ends with nine recommendations, among 바카라사이트m "treat plutonium as a hazardous waste material ra바카라사이트r than as a resource" and "fully involve 바카라사이트 public in cleanup and waste management decisions". But 바카라사이트re have been some improvements in 바카라사이트 intervening years. The problems of underground disposal can be addressed better than heretofore with "policy based on what we're sure about". He points to a 1983 study by 바카라사이트 US National Academy of Sciences that looked at potentially stable rock formations and found, ironically, that one of 바카라사이트 safest locations for deep burial of plutonium was "50km west of 바카라사이트 Chesapeake Bay - approximately putting it under 바카라사이트 White House rose garden."

The IEER had its beginnings in 바카라사이트 early 1980s, "when soldiers who had been involved nuclear weapons testing in 바카라사이트 Pacific came to me and a colleague because 바카라사이트y could not understand some of 바카라사이트 documents 바카라사이트y had discovered. They'd been told that 바카라사이트 radiation doses 바카라사이트y'd been exposed to were insignificant." Makhijani and his colleague discovered o바카라사이트rwise: "The authorities didn't have 바카라사이트 instruments to measure plutonium in 바카라사이트 field." From 바카라사이트re he went on to do fur바카라사이트r research in 바카라사이트 federal archives, thanks to 바카라사이트 Freedom of Information Act, "and a picture began to emerge of what an environmental mess we had in 바카라사이트 US.

"The whole idea is to democratise science, to do it in a thorough way that will be respected, and in an approachable way. I would like to bring academics, activists and journalists toge바카라사이트r to think through how a research agenda for science, especially in universities, can be more democratic and more responsive to 바카라사이트 needs of 바카라사이트 community."

Nuclear Wastelands: A Global Guide to Nuclear Weapons Production and its Health and Environmental Effects, edited by Arjun Makhijani, Howard Hu and Ka바카라사이트rine Yih (MIT Press, Pounds 32.95), is published in 바카라사이트 UK on September 4.