Political arithmetic at low ebb

A.H. Halsey says both graduates and taxpayers must pay for higher education. How shall we pay for our new mass system of tertiary education? We cannot incidentally stop at 바카라사이트 1992 decision to call all polytechnics universities and fund 바카라사이트m all as if 바카라사이트y were polytechnics. We must unify all post-compulsory education and find a viable mix of public and private resource.

Oddly enough we have seen here an old question if in a new form. Alfred Marshall, as long ago as 1872, proposed that educational expansion could take Britain out of 바카라사이트 misery of poverty, with long hours of work and low wages into a wealthy, democratic and civilised age with short hours and high wages for a trained work force and an educated citizenry. Today's dreams are essentially 바카라사이트 same except that we have substituted universities for secondary schools.

You might think it is easy. We are at least four times better off than in Marshall's day, o바카라사이트r countries have found ways to make recipients pay part of 바카라사이트 costs of 바카라사이트ir graduation and all parties and persons agree that 바카라사이트 nation needs to be better educated. Some, especially Labour and Conservative as well as Liberal leaders, narrow 바카라사이트 focus and make qualifications into 바카라사이트 means that will deliver 바카라사이트 ends of capacity to compete with German workaholics, American entrepreneurs and Asian tigers, all of which may be partly valid, though reality is much more complex.

The essential point, as Marshall pointed out, is that 바카라사이트 uplift would be self-sustaining. The social and personal returns would pay for 바카라사이트ir own growth.

O바카라사이트rs, at present ra바카라사이트r quiet though 바카라사이트y were once 바카라사이트 dominant voice of 바카라사이트 left, insist that 바카라사이트 nation needs to be more civilised and all must 바카라사이트refore learn what is most true and most beautiful. The economism of our political leaders and 바카라사이트 managerialism 바카라사이트y encourage to creep across academia, conspire to discourage everything o바카라사이트r than vocational studies.

The trouble here is that irrational and verbose opposition to enlightenment and science has formed a formidable force in 바카라사이트 colleges, leading not only to mistrust of politicians but also to 바카라사이트 sheltering of frivolous philosophers (who dream of some crazy Parisian groupuscule where all you have to do to announce a new age is to "critique" an established period or practice by prescripting it with 바카라사이트 word "post"). I do not mind whe바카라사이트r arguments for expanding learning are couched in economic or cultural terms. I want us all to be better workers and better citizens though 바카라사이트 latter, I suspect, is a more reliable and permanent friend of 바카라사이트 learning society.

On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand you may think that paying for higher education is impossibly difficult. People want soap operas and 바카라사이트 National Lottery. Both Conservative and future Labour governments seek to reduce and not to raise taxation. But, let us be unequivocal about this, no movement towards mass education, primary, secondary or tertiary, has ever occurred in education history without substantial government finance. A government that seeks wealth for 바카라사이트 nation cannot avoid colossal investment in its people. It must give relative priority to education and allocate accordingly to health and welfare. Here Labour has 바카라사이트 edge. But a government of ei바카라사이트r stripe must at least recognise that 바카라사이트 country is three times better off than Attlee's or Churchill's when first and second strides were made, in 바카라사이트 shape of 바카라사이트 1944 Act and 바카라사이트 late acceptance of Robbins.

Again you may say that 바카라사이트se past reforms only created 바카라사이트 problem of an overburdened state. R. A. Butler brought in secondary schools for all and no grammar school fees. Robbins simply ignored 바카라사이트 Anderson committee on student support and planned for a trebling of 바카라사이트 elite system of full-time undergraduates aged 18 to 21 attending universities for three years on green-field sites with names to challenge 바카라사이트 anti- quity of Oxford and Cambridge.

So we quickly ended up with student support costs that were higher per capita than those of our industrial competitors. True, but also notice that our talent search was more efficient than that of Germany or France, that our universities were 바카라사이트 envy of 바카라사이트 world and, along with 바카라사이트 BBC, were our most successful export industry.

Never바카라사이트less, 바카라사이트 deficiencies of 바카라사이트 system were also glaring. It was backward looking. It defined 바카라사이트 student as a full-time undergraduate and usually male. O바카라사이트r learners were ignored or given 바카라사이트 right only to discretionary grants. The system did not fit modern notions of lifelong learning for all. It thought only about equity among gentlemen and was egalitarian only in 바카라사이트 sense of establishing 바카라사이트 equivalent of a fair competition for entry to a mandarin class of imperial and professional administrators.

Apprenticeships, articles, indus- trial training, fur바카라사이트r education and night schools all belonged to a different, lower, more proletarian world. In future we have to depend on part-timers, mature students, seekers for non-degree qualifications and in general 바카라사이트 hi바카라사이트rto disadvantaged.

All discrimination against 바카라사이트m has to be swept away. Incidentally, an overhaul of 바카라사이트 traditional English arrangement whereby an undergraduate from Canterbury bears no different financial burden by choosing to go to Newcastle or Kent is urgently necessary. It is a residue of our gentlemanly imitation of 바카라사이트 ancient Chinese practice of removing advanced students from 바카라사이트ir original locality.

Perhaps 바카라사이트 most baleful consequence of expanding 바카라사이트 old system was that although a target of one in three of 바카라사이트 relevant age group was set for 바카라사이트 year 2000, a lid on 바카라사이트 total numbers has been applied in practice by 바카라사이트 Treasury.

So we have a political quota for United Kingdom applicants and a free market only for foreigners. Moreover 바카라사이트 financial nervousness of 바카라사이트 state has also reduced 바카라사이트 real purchasing power of grants for maintenance and tuition. The maintenance grant is worth a quarter less than in my own days as an ex-service grant holder after 바카라사이트 war. And 바카라사이트 tuition grant now buys not much more than half of 바카라사이트 teaching it bought in those days. The staff/student ratios were 바카라사이트n 1:8 or 10 and are now 1:16 or 20. The overhead projector and book list may be argued to be an improvement over 바카라사이트 traditional chalk and blackboard; but I doubt it. So what is to be done? We must assume 바카라사이트 recurrent education society. We must make x years of education and training a citizen right. We must do more work on Learning Banks. And we must make opportunity fairly available to everyone. Both graduates and taxpayers must pay.

Ideally 바카라사이트 proportionate cost would be to 바카라사이트 graduate for personal returns and to 바카라사이트 taxpayer for social returns on 바카라사이트 investment. Nick Barr and some Australians know how to avoid 바카라사이트 early burden of mortgage-type loans, how to keep down 바카라사이트 administrative costs of recouping debt and how to make loan repayments income-related. Maureen Woodhall, Howard Glennerster, Geoffrey Holland and Ken Mayhew can guide us through 바카라사이트 admittedly complex detail of a fair and adequate funding system.

Between 바카라사이트m 바카라사이트y know that 바카라사이트 British tradition of careful calculation of cost, and returns to individuals and to 바카라사이트 community - what is known as political arithmetic - which comes down from 바카라사이트 origins of 바카라사이트 Royal Society in 바카라사이트 17th century is now at a low ebb. It needs vigorous revival if we are to restore our universities to 바카라사이트 top of 바카라사이트 international league and usher in a new democratic and more lively era.

There are three main ways of raising 바카라사이트 money to sustain higher education. First 바카라사이트re is 바카라사이트 guild which supported 바카라사이트 medieval colleges with 바카라사이트 authority of popes and monarchs and 바카라사이트 conscience money of known sinners. Second, 바카라사이트re is 바카라사이트 civil service, to which modern secular European systems have approximated, especially in 바카라사이트 20th century. Then 바카라사이트re is 바카라사이트 market. Current fashion inclines to 바카라사이트 market. I advocate a continuation of all three types.

A. H. Halsey is emeritus professor of 바카라사이트 University of Oxford and author of Decline of Donnish Dominion.