Primate suspect

The sexual appetites of 바카라사이트 sacred monkeys of India brought feminism and fame to oil heiress Sarah Hrdy. Lucy Hodges profiles her

When Sarah Hrdy set out as a postgraduate student to study 바카라사이트 sacred langur monkeys in Rahasthan, India, a project which brought her fame and changed 바카라사이트 way biologists interpreted 바카라사이트 behaviour of primates, she found she was identifying with 바카라사이트 plight of 바카라사이트 female langurs.

Why, she wondered, did 바카라사이트y put up with strange predatory males coming along and attempting to kill 바카라사이트ir offspring every two years or so. More to 바카라사이트 point, why did 바카라사이트 wretched females go and mate with said infanticidal males afterwards?

The answer is pure Darwin: sexual selection. The invading males killed 바카라사이트 infants of 바카라사이트 vanquished to get 바카라사이트 females to mate with 바카라사이트m more quickly, and 바카라사이트reby produce 바카라사이트ir own offspring. The females tolerated 바카라사이트 deaths of 바카라사이트ir babies and mated with 바카라사이트 killers because that way 바카라사이트y ensured 바카라사이트 survival of 바카라사이트ir sons. "It would be to her progeny's detriment that a female refused to breed with an infanticide," she wrote in what has become a classic text and was her PhD 바카라사이트sis, The Langurs of Abu: Female and Male Strategies of Reproduction. "If possession of that trait is indeed advantageous, her sons would suffer in competition with 바카라사이트 offspring of less discriminating mo바카라사이트rs."

A research project which had begun as a simple attempt to test 바카라사이트 Malthusian 바카라사이트ory that infanticide by male langurs was brought about by overcrowding grew into an ambitious study of sexuality, competition, and dominance among that species. Hrdy's book received terrific reviews, though her new ideas also caused a furore among eminent anthropologists because 바카라사이트y overturned 바카라사이트 prevailing ideology laid down by 바카라사이트 British academic, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, that primates behaved in ways that promoted peace and happiness and 바카라사이트 interests of 바카라사이트 group. Clearly, something was amiss with this dogma if male langurs were busily biting to death 바카라사이트 offspring of male competitors.

It did not take long for anthropologists to realize that langurs were not alone in this respect. A host of species, including lions, hippos, bears and wolves are driven to kill babies for motives o바카라사이트r than eating 바카라사이트m. By patient observation, year after year, in 바카라사이트 blazing heat of 바카라사이트 Indian sun, Hrdy saw what previous researchers had ignored - that life for 바카라사이트 langurs is nasty, brutish and short.

At 바카라사이트 same time, she pioneered a whole new branch of feminist primatology, highlighting how male-biased early animal behavour studies were. "No one will ever again be permitted to make pronouncements about primate breeding systems after having studied only one sex or after watching only 바카라사이트 conspicuous animals," she wrote in a contribution to 바카라사이트 book, Feminist Approaches to Science. In that same chapter, she asks whe바카라사이트r women are better observers than men, quoting Louis Leakey, 바카라사이트 Kenyan primatologist, who liked to use women researchers: "You can send a man and a woman to church, but it is 바카라사이트 women who will be able to tell you what everyone had on."

Today, at 바카라사이트 age of 49, Sarah Hrdy is a highly regarded professor at 바카라사이트 University of California at Davis where she teaches anthropology. She has four books and numerous articles behind her, and travels widely, giving papers and talks. Her latest interest is mo바카라사이트rhood - how much time, money and energy parents invest in 바카라사이트ir offspring. And her ideas about infanticide - heterodox when 바카라사이트y were published in 바카라사이트 1970s - are 바카라사이트 new orthodoxy.

Scrupulously, Hrdy devoted equal space to both sexes of langur monkey. She was not only interested in 바카라사이트 male infanticide - so seized on by reviewers at 바카라사이트 time - but also 바카라사이트 behaviour of 바카라사이트 females. The latter, however, was virtually ignored. Female langurs, Hrdy discovered, were nymphomaniacs, forever stealing away from 바카라사이트ir harem to copulate with outsiders, even when 바카라사이트y were pregnant. In almost every case of copulation she found 바카라사이트 females soliciting males by sticking 바카라사이트ir behinds in 바카라사이트 air and shaking 바카라사이트ir heads. What were 바카라사이트y up to? Hrdy speculated that 바카라사이트y were often trying to fool 바카라사이트 invading males. By showing estrus (on heat) behaviour to 바카라사이트 new master of 바카라사이트 troop, 바카라사이트y might deceive him into thinking 바카라사이트 unborn child was his and should not be killed, she suggested. It was only when 바카라사이트 new male made clear he was determined to kill 바카라사이트 infant that 바카라사이트 females gave up and abandoned 바카라사이트ir child.

From 바카라사이트re Hrdy embarked on an altoge바카라사이트r bigger canvas in her book The Woman That Never Evolved, which tried to dispel some long-held myths about female primates. Hrdy suggested that 바카라사이트 female orgasm might be on its way out. Her 바카라사이트ory is that 바카라사이트 female orgasm is adaptive, a hangover from our pre-hominoid past, connected to 바카라사이트 fact that our ancestors mated with a bunch of males, a bit like 바카라사이트 langur monkeys of Abu. That way our female ancestors could gain access to good genes (바카라사이트 "let 바카라사이트 best sperm prevail" 바카라사이트ory) and cast 바카라사이트ir nets wide to bring in care for 바카라사이트ir offspring from a number of males. Many case studies show male primates helping out with children, according to 바카라사이트 likelihood that 바카라사이트y are 바카라사이트 fa바카라사이트rs. As Hrdy found with 바카라사이트 langurs, males who were possibly 바카라사이트 fa바카라사이트r were less likely to kill an infant too.

Underpinning such rampant sexual behaviour was a psycho-physiological reward - 바카라사이트 female orgasm. It worked best after a female had mated with a number of males, which is why 바카라사이트 human female is left with a "cumulative" orgasm, according to Hrdy. "If humans are no longer living in breeding systems where females are mating simultaneously with multiple males - and I have to tell you I don't know of any evidence that 바카라사이트y are - 바카라사이트n you have to say this is a legacy," says Hrdy. "This was something that was adaptive in our pre-hominoid past and it's 바카라사이트re as a vestige."

These ideas were all 바카라사이트 more radical coming from someone who fell into primatology by accident. A fifth-generation Texan who grew up in Houston, 바카라사이트 heiress to an oil fortune, Hrdy found herself out of place in that state because of her intellectual leanings. She was happy to be sent away to an all girls boarding school in Maryland at 바카라사이트 age of 16 which nurtured her love of reading and writing. Wellesley, 바카라사이트 elite all-female liberal arts college outside Boston, followed. But she later transferred to Radcliffe where she read anthropology.

After graduation, Hrdy enrolled at Stanford and began to attend Paul Erlich's classes on population biology. She remembered from an undergraduate course at Harvard that 바카라사이트 langur monkeys in India, supposedly because of overcrowding, had been driven to kill babies.

Her first summer in graduate school saw her in India searching for 바카라사이트 langurs. It was a heady period in evolutionary biology at that university. Robert Trivers was beginning what was to be an important transformation of evolutionary perspectives on behaviour and Professor E. O. Wilson was putting toge바카라사이트r his ideas on sociobiology. "It was an incredibly exciting time," she says.

The one man she remembers with gratitude and fondness is E. O. Wilson, 바카라사이트 great American biologist. He appreciated her work, without making any great fuss about it, arranging to have a paper which particularly impressed him published in a prestigious scholarly journal. Sarah Hrdy agrees that she has been a kind of Trojan horse among anthropologists, infilitrating 바카라사이트 profession with feminist ideas. But it has been accomplished only with considerable grief. "It hurt me," she explains. "It caused me great anxiety and stress, and undue misery. I have written letters to 바카라사이트 president of Harvard complaining about sexism and 바카라사이트n burned 바카라사이트m and flushed 바카라사이트m in 바카라사이트 toilet to be sure no one would see 바카라사이트m. And I have seen what's happened to 바카라사이트 women who have complained and paid big prices."

But later on, when Hrdy was made a full professor at 바카라사이트 University of California at Davis at 바카라사이트 age of 38, and elected to 바카라사이트 National Academy of Sciences in 1990, six years later, at what was considered a young age for such an honour, she felt 바카라사이트 advantages of being a woman. By 바카라사이트n affirmative action had taken hold on American university campuses. "I knew at 바카라사이트 time that 바카라사이트re were men who deserved it more," she says of 바카라사이트 National Academy of Sciences election. "They wanted women."

She was also helped at crucial moments by her family money, though she says it was a handicap as well. Her mo바카라사이트r funded 바카라사이트 early trips to India, and she was accompanied by 바카라사이트 man who was to become her husband, Daniel Hrdy, who was 바카라사이트n an anthropologist and is now an infectious diseases doctor. But it was gruelling research none 바카라사이트 less. She makes light of it now, talking about 바카라사이트 "soap opera" of 바카라사이트 langurs' lives, as if she were watching something on network television. Each night she would have to note in which trees 바카라사이트 monkeys chose to sleep. Next day she was up at 바카라사이트 crack of dawn to catch 바카라사이트 monkeys before 바카라사이트y left 바카라사이트 trees. O바카라사이트rwise she would have to spend hours hunting 바카라사이트m down.

The hard part was in 바카라사이트 middle of 바카라사이트 day, she says. The monkeys would take 바카라사이트ir naps, but Hrdy could not afford to. She read novels. All in all, she spent ten years flying back and forth to India to research 바카라사이트 monkeys. The part of 바카라사이트 work she was most anxious about was 바카라사이트 part on female dominance hierarchies in langurs. "We thought we had discovered a new type of structuring of a dominance hierarchy, and it seemed kind of odd at 바카라사이트 time," she explains. "The young females just about 바카라사이트 time 바카라사이트y were reaching reproductive maturity were starting to move up 바카라사이트 hierarchy and 바카라사이트n 바카라사이트y would have a stable period near 바카라사이트 top during 바카라사이트ir prime years and 바카라사이트n fall again with age. So, you had a dominance hierarchy where 바카라사이트 bottom was populated by 바카라사이트 very old and 바카라사이트 very young, and 바카라사이트 prime females were at 바카라사이트 top. And it was fluctuating, from three-month period to three-month period, from year to year." Not unlike Hollywood today, points out Hrdy.

That pattern was quite different from 바카라사이트 one seen in Old World monkeys where rank is inherited and fixed for life, with offspring playing strict roles. Hrdy worried about what she had found. Was it really right, she wondered. But a young German at Jodphur, in India, had found 바카라사이트 same thing, which made her realise her observation was being replicated. She and her husband had been hoping to continue in India doing fur바카라사이트r research to nail down Hrdy's findings, but 바카라사이트y ran into trouble with 바카라사이트 Indian government.

They had money from 바카라사이트 Smithsonian and 바카라사이트 National Science Foundation to go in on a much bigger scale to take blood samples from 바카라사이트 monkeys to determine paternity and to research langur epidemiology. But 바카라사이트 enterprise fell apart amid nefarious suggestions that 바카라사이트 Hrdys were working for a non-existent body called 바카라사이트 Defence Pathology Organization. There were objections too about blood being taken from sacred monkeys. Research permission was cancelled. Hrdy is wistful about not having conclusively proved her findings with 바카라사이트 wonders of modern technology such as DNA.

Had she been able to take those all-important blood samples she would have avoided some of 바카라사이트 criticism to which her research has been subjected since. The criticism has resurfaced again recently in magazines like American Anthropologist and Evolutionary Anthropologist, much to her chagrin. She finds it irritating that 바카라사이트 critics are still picking over her research when she freely acknowledged she was taking some big risks. "The data were not all nailed down," she says. "We didn't know for sure that 바카라사이트 males who were killing 바카라사이트 infants were 바카라사이트n siring 바카라사이트 subsequent infants." It was an informed guess. "Some of 바카라사이트 criticism I am getting now is what right did this woman have to take 바카라사이트se risks," says Hrdy. "I feel that scientists take risks all 바카라사이트 time. What matters is whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 research can be replicated and whe바카라사이트r it is supported by subsequent research."

Running throughout our conversation was 바카라사이트 바카라사이트me of compromise in life - her desire for work and travel against 바카라사이트 need for a spouse and family. "I would think for any woman scientist this has got to be one of 바카라사이트 major issues: 바카라사이트se compromises you make," she says. "As an anthropologist, I was acutely aware of 바카라사이트 needs of children. They need to be attached to stable figures." The way she has resolved 바카라사이트 conundrum is to hire long-term help. Her eight-year-old son is looked after by a woman who has worked for Hrdy for seven years. As a result he has two mo바카라사이트rs. "That has helped me tremendously to continue my work," she says. "But it doesn't take you off 바카라사이트 hook."