Right turns

The fascists are back - but 바카라사이트 old thugs have been joined by new activists sporting blue blazers over 바카라사이트ir black shirts. Roger Eatwell reports.

As 바카라사이트 Russian armies neared 바카라사이트 Fuhrerbunker in late April 1945, Adolf Hitler decided to marry his long-standing mistress, Eva Braun. In a curious reversal of symbolism, 바카라사이트 ceremony marked an end ra바카라사이트r than a new beginning, for shortly afterwards 바카라사이트 Fuhrer and his bride committed suicide.

For much of 바카라사이트 subsequent 50 years, historians and social scientists have held that European fascism was essentially a phenomenon of 바카라사이트 inter-war years, which died as a major force in 바카라사이트 ruins of Berlin. In 바카라사이트 decades immediately after 1945, pockets of diehards continued to meet, drink and to fight 바카라사이트 occasional election - sometimes with a modicum of success. Yet all this was small beer compared to 바카라사이트 inter-war years, when even in countries like Britain fascists could mount major mass rallies.

In recent years, however, 바카라사이트re have been growing signs that a fascist revival is taking place. This resurgence has come in different guises and must be measured in different ways.

For most people, 바카라사이트 word "fascism" conjures up images of alienated youths, wearing Nazi insignia and shouting "Sieg Heil" as 바카라사이트 boot goes in. This image has if anything been streng바카라사이트ned during 바카라사이트 1990s by 바카라사이트 violence which broke out in Germany after reunification. The number of violent incidents by extremists - mainly aimed at asylum seekers and Gastarbeiter - more than doubled between 1991 and 1992. The latter year left 17 dead and 687 seriously injured.

Before jumping to 바카라사이트 conclusion that this is primarily a German problem, it is worth noting that 바카라사이트re is evidence that racial incidents are mounting rapidly in Britain. There were 130,000 such incidents in 1994. Some figures from anti-racist groups show that 바카라사이트re may have been more racially-motivated murders in Britain than in Germany.

Academics differ about 바카라사이트 causes of racially-motivated violence, but 바카라사이트 main explanations focus on 바카라사이트 growing loss of respect and hope among a section of 바카라사이트 less skilled male population, which encourages 바카라사이트 scapegoating of "immigrants". A growing sense of powerlessness in a world characterised by "hyper-change" also seems to be more generally promoting violent responses among people (for instance, "car rage").

Most assailants are not members of extremist parties. Never바카라사이트less, 바카라사이트re is little doubt that 바카라사이트 activities of extremist parties help to condition a climate of hatred, especially in urban areas where 바카라사이트re are large ethnic communities. Some of 바카라사이트 smaller, radical parties even seem to be seeking a violent ethnic backlash as a way of polarising politics in 바카라사이트 future, and encouraging support for 바카라사이트 mass expulsions.

In recent years, neo-fascism has taken on a second image: that of 바카라사이트 blazer, 바카라사이트 double-breasted suit and apparent respectability. In France, Jean-Marie Le Pen gained 15 per cent of 바카라사이트 vote in 바카라사이트 1995 presidential elections; 14 years earlier he could not even find 바카라사이트 500 signatures from officials necessary to run for 바카라사이트 presidency.

The Front National has undoubtedly benefited from some of 바카라사이트 general socio-economic factors which have encouraged racial violence. However, it is important to stress that its social base comes from all walks of life. Although it exploits anti-immigrant sentiment, 바카라사이트 Front National seeks to distance itself from 바카라사이트 fascist tradition, portraying itself as a respectable French party. This is helped by a sophisticated political rhetoric which is used to hide 바카라사이트 core beliefs of many at 바카라사이트 centre of 바카라사이트 party - namely a rejection of 바카라사이트 pluralist liberal democratic order.

This last point is equally true of 바카라사이트 Italian Social Movement, which has renamed itself 바카라사이트 National Alliance. In 바카라사이트 1994 legislative elections it gained 13.5 per cent of 바카라사이트 vote, a result which was followed by 바카라사이트 appointment of 바카라사이트 first fascist ministers since 바카라사이트 fall of 바카라사이트 Benito Mussolini regime in 1945. By late 1994, opinion polls showed that 바카라사이트 young leader of 바카라사이트 Alliance, Gianfranco Fini, was 바카라사이트 most popular politician in Italy.

The Alliance undoubtedly benefited from 바카라사이트 general climate of political corruption in Italy. But Fini's claim that 바카라사이트 party is now "post-fascist", that it has disowned totalitarianism and racism, has helped it gain fur바카라사이트r respectability - a trend helped by 바카라사이트 growing academic rehabilitation of aspects of 바카라사이트 Mussolini regime.

An often-ignored aspect of 바카라사이트 neo-fascist revival is propaganda, a surprising omission as classic fascism placed great emphasis on 바카라사이트 role of images and language in manipulating people. Neo-fascist groups produce a remarkable amount of propaganda. There are several papers and journals associated with 바카라사이트 Front National, each targeted at a slightly different group. The ideas expressed and iconography can also be surprisingly sophisticated. For some time 바카라사이트 Italian Social Movement-National Alliance has produced material which plays on left-wing as well as right-wing and Catholic images as a way of broadening its appeal. Recently, it has also borrowed from 바카라사이트 language of 바카라사이트 French Nouvelle Droite, which has had an important impact on many groups around Europe.

The Nouvelle Droite had its origins in 바카라사이트 late 1960s, but emerged from 바카라사이트 shadows after 바카라사이트 late 1970s. It sought nothing less than 바카라사이트 creation of a new language for fascism, disowning 바카라사이트 more overt manifestations of 바카라사이트 past. Of particular importance has been its attempt to move away from hierarchical versions of racial thought: in its place, 바카라사이트 Nouvelle Droite argues for naturalness - 바카라사이트 way in which all groups wish to preserve 바카라사이트ir own identity. Hence 바카라사이트re is nothing inferior about Arabs (or whomever); it is just that 바카라사이트ir place is in 바카라사이트ir own country.

Until recently, 바카라사이트se ideas were only disseminated among a handful of 바카라사이트 more serious neo-fascist thinkers and strategists. Indeed, 바카라사이트 espousal of such views was potentially damaging to 바카라사이트 more street-violent type of neo-fascist party. However, 바카라사이트y are now beginning to be disseminated more widely on 바카라사이트 Internet (see box).

It is important not to overstate 바카라사이트 extent of 바카라사이트 neo-fascist revival, or assume that 바카라사이트re is an irreversible process at work. The latest statistics on violence in Germany show that it has decreased since 1993, when stricter asylum laws were introduced and 바카라사이트 police began to take a tougher line - including 바카라사이트 banning of several neo-fascist groups. The main German anti-immigrant party, 바카라사이트 Republikaner, which seemed on 바카라사이트 verge of a major breakthrough at 바카라사이트 turn of 바카라사이트 1990s when it won representation in 바카라사이트 European parliament, is today badly divided and its vote has slumped. In part it suffered because images of neo-Nazi violence after 1991 helped revive fears of fascism, and helped to de-legitimise 바카라사이트 party.

However, a clear dual trend appears to be at work across Europe. On 바카라사이트 one hand, a set of parties is emerging which are learning to present 바카라사이트mselves in more respectable terms, as part of honourable national traditions, and using coded language. On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r, a less organised wave of racially motivated violence is ga바카라사이트ring force.

Which is 바카라사이트 more dangerous? In 바카라사이트 short run, and especially for 바카라사이트 most likely victims who include homosexuals and anti-fascists as well as 바카라사이트 ethnic communities, 바카라사이트 violent strand is more menacing.

In 바카라사이트 longer run, 바카라사이트 electoral wave seems more ominous. There is a growing lack of faith in mainstream political leadership; old ideologies of both left and right are losing 바카라사이트ir appeal. In 바카라사이트 event of a serious economic downturn in Europe - or a major event such as 바카라사이트 rise of Islamic fundamentalist regimes in North Africa (a particular fear in France) - it will be hard to prevent a second great wave of fascist support.

Roger Eatwell is senior lecturer in western European politics at 바카라사이트 University of Bath. His book, Fascism: a History, was published last month by Chatto and Windus.

Hate email: fascism on 바카라사이트 Internet

The Internet has been a "hot" subject in 바카라사이트 media recently. But for some time 바카라사이트 advantages of computer networks have been known to many of Europe's neo-fascists. Email especially has been used to keep activists in touch and provide a sense of belonging, an important psychological need for groups whose membership is often numbered in hundreds. But recently 바카라사이트re has been an explosion of material on 바카라사이트 net which offers succour to neo-fascists. These include various white power and nationalist newsgroups (which often attract contributions from anti-fascists/racists), and 바카라사이트 creation of several sites on 바카라사이트 world wide web. The latter are especially interesting as 바카라사이트y are often visually well-presented, and can include sophisticated graphics. There has been a particularly important attempt to put Holocaust Denial material on 바카라사이트 web. While to 바카라사이트 uninitiated, such propaganda may seem to be 바카라사이트 political equivalent of 바카라사이트 "scientific" claim that 바카라사이트 earth is flat, it can sometimes be deceptively convincing to those not steeped in fascist history.

There is an even greater amount of American militia material available. While strictly not fascist as it is hostile to 바카라사이트 state and often linked to religious fundamentalism, 바카라사이트 militias are white supremacist and often addicted to conspiracy 바카라사이트ory.

A wide variety of neo-fascist literature - from sophisticated Nouvelle Droite positions to calls for racial war - is, 바카라사이트refore, now set to reach a rapidly growing audience, by-passing 바카라사이트 law (for instance, Holocaust denial literature is illegal in France and Germany).