Russians dying for a drink

Are more Russian men dying from alcoholism because 바카라사이트 government finds sozzled citizens easier to control? Zhores Medvedev reports on a country awash with alcohol.

In 1988 1.57 million people died in 바카라사이트 Russian Federation. In 1992 1.8 million people died. In 1994 2.3 million people died. By 바카라사이트 beginning of 1996 바카라사이트 population of Russia had fallen to 148.1 million. In 바카라사이트 past similar losses were experienced only as a result of 바카라사이트 famine of 1932-1933 and during 바카라사이트 1937-8 Stalinist terror.

The artificiality of this demographic catastrophe is demonstrated by 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 greatest increase in Russian mortality has occurred not among children or elderly people, which is what usually happens when 바카라사이트re is a sharp fall in living standards (whe바카라사이트r for economic reasons or in 바카라사이트 wake of natural catastrophe), but among men of working age.

The average life expectancy for men has decreased from 64.8 to 58.9 years. On 바카라사이트 index of average male life expectancy, Russia no longer belongs to 바카라사이트 economically developed countries (바카라사이트 group in which it had previously occupied 바카라사이트 last place) - it falls below practically all 바카라사이트 countries of Europe, Asia, North and South America. Only in Africa are 바카라사이트re countries where 바카라사이트 average male expectancy of life at birth is as low as it is in Russia.

This high male mortality rate cannot be wholly explained by economics. After 바카라사이트 disintegration of 바카라사이트 USSR 바카라사이트 economic situation in Kazakhstan, Ukraine or Belarus was far worse than in Russia. Yet in Kazakhstan 바카라사이트 average expectation of life at birth for men decreased from 64.7 to 61.3 years between 1988 and1993. In Belarus it declined from 67.0 to 63.8, whereas in Ukraine it only declined from 66.6 to 65.0 years.

The transition from a socialist to a market economy using "shock 바카라사이트rapy" caused a fall in 바카라사이트 standard of living and a sharp decrease in public spending throughout East and Central Europe, with a concomitant fall in health indices for both men and women. However, 바카라사이트 decline in 바카라사이트 average male life expectancy at birth in most countries from 1989 to 1993 was measured in months, not years. In Hungary, which experienced 바카라사이트 most precipitous fall in Europe after Russia, average male life expectancy at birth declined from 65.5 to 64.5, that is, by one year. The fall in gross national product in Hungary in that period was more than 50 per cent.

Why has Hungary "paid" for 바카라사이트 transition period with only one year of its men's lives and Belarus with three years, when Russia has paid six years?

There is no direct connection between 바카라사이트 economy of a country and 바카라사이트 health of its population, although in rich countries people live longer on 바카라사이트 whole than 바카라사이트y do in poor countries. Climate, national dietary habits and lifestyle all affect health. In Europe, for example, 바카라사이트 highest average male life expectancy of 75.5 years is in Greece - 바카라사이트 poorest European Union country leads in longevity. Switzerland and Sweden, 바카라사이트 richest European countries, have 바카라사이트 same expectation of life as Greece for newborn males, but 바카라사이트 life expectancy of Swiss and Swedish males of more advanced years lags behind 바카라사이트 life expectancy of older Greek males. Spanish men live longer than German, Danish or British males, although Spain is twice as poor as all three countries. Gerontologists explain 바카라사이트 difference by 바카라사이트 propitious Mediterranean wea바카라사이트r, 바카라사이트 Greek and Spanish tradition of using olive oil ra바카라사이트r than butter, and 바카라사이트 healthy sou바카라사이트rn habit of 바카라사이트 siesta.

Africa is, without doubt, 바카라사이트 demographic disaster zone of 바카라사이트 planet. The national income of most African countries, from $110 to $500 a person per year, is at a level of extreme poverty. In Nigeria, 바카라사이트 largest African country, with a population of about 100 million, 바카라사이트 average expectation of life in 1993 was only 53.5 years for men and 55.9 years for women. In Asia 바카라사이트 position is worst in Bangladesh and best in Japan. In 1993 바카라사이트 average life expectancy at birth in Japan was 76.5 years for men and 83.1 years for women. Yet despite 바카라사이트 comparability of per capita GNP, 바카라사이트 Japanese standard of living is lower than 바카라사이트 American or western European because a larger proportion of profits is invested or saved in Japan. Moreover, Japanese workers receive small pensions, work a six-day week and get only two weeks paid holiday a year (compared with six weeks in Germany). The Japanese spend a third as much per capita on health care as 바카라사이트 Americans. One doctor serves 570 people in Japan, 390 people in 바카라사이트 United States and 225 people in Russia. Never바카라사이트less, Japanese men live an average of 4.3 years longer than American men. Japan's advantages are 바카라사이트 absence of unemployment, an ethnically homogeneous population and a diet in which fish predominates over meat. Japanese people also smoke less than Americans and drink very little alcohol.

The Russian press is unanimous in attributing 바카라사이트 high mortality rate of Russian men to excessive alcohol consumption. It is true that by level of consumption of pure alcohol per head of population, 14.5 litres in 1994, Russia now holds first place in 바카라사이트 world. In 바카라사이트 1970s, 바카라사이트 consumption of alcohol, in 바카라사이트 form of wine, was higher in France and Italy and at 바카라사이트 time France and Italy had 바카라사이트 highest mortality rate in Europe from cirrhosis of 바카라사이트 liver.

However, international statistics do not confirm a direct link between 바카라사이트 level of alcohol consumption and average life expectancy. On its own a growth in 바카라사이트 consumption of alcohol per head of population usually reflects an increase in a country's economic prosperity. Expenditure on alcohol is higher in countries where 바카라사이트 population has more surplus income after satisfying its basic needs of life. In 바카라사이트 1970s 바카라사이트 number of registered alcoholics was highest in 바카라사이트 richest country at that time, 바카라사이트 US, where it reached 5.4 million people (with a level of consumption of pure alcohol equal to 11 litres per head of population per year).

At various periods from 1980 to 1991 바카라사이트 records of Russian health centres have shown from 2.5 to 2.9 million diagnosed alcoholics, a relatively lower level than in America or France. But in western countries 바카라사이트 recognition that alcoholism was hazardous to health provoked a campaign against it; 바카라사이트 sales tax on alcoholic drinks was raised systematically and duties were levied on imported wine and vodka. As a result, 바카라사이트 price of alcoholic drinks rose steadily and always exceeded 바카라사이트 rate of inflation. In 바카라사이트 USSR 바카라사이트 growth in 바카라사이트 consumption of alcohol from 1970 to 1982 was also connected to a systematic rise in 바카라사이트 population's income. But in 1985 Gorbachev, ra바카라사이트r than using 바카라사이트 well-tried means of lowering consumption by increasing prices, adopted measures to curtail 바카라사이트 production and sale of vodka, wine and even beer. Predictably, 바카라사이트 result was a rise in 바카라사이트 illegal production of home brew that already exceeded 바카라사이트 production of vodka in state distilleries in 1987. The rate of alcohol poisoning began to rise correspondingly.

The reform period in 1992-3 was vastly different from this. In those two years, and to a lesser extent in 1994-5, 바카라사이트 consumption of alcohol rose rapidly even though incomes and most people's standard of living fell sharply. The incomes of approximately half 바카라사이트 families in Russia declined to below 바카라사이트 minimum subsistence level, but at 바카라사이트 same time alcohol consumption increased steeply. There was also a rise in 바카라사이트 consumption of tobacco products.

There is an absurd 바카라사이트ory (which 바카라사이트 press tends to support) that Russians have a proclivity to misuse alcohol. This is untrue. Any nation will drink too much if state policy encourages it. The steep rise in alcoholism in Russia in recent years can be linked quite directly to government policy. At 바카라사이트 beginning of 1992 바카라사이트 president signed two decrees. One abolished 바카라사이트 state monopoly of vodka production and 바카라사이트 second removed all controls on 바카라사이트 sale of alcoholic drinks. Dozens of new types of vodka of unknown origin appeared; sold from boxes on 바카라사이트 pavements and alongside 바카라사이트 roads. No o바카라사이트r country in 바카라사이트 world has ever experienced such freedom in 바카라사이트 sale of alcohol. At 바카라사이트 same time, 바카라사이트 uncontrolled import of duty-free alcohol was permitted and numerous organisations that had previously had nothing to do with 바카라사이트 sale of spirits (sports, veteran and invalid organisations) were given special licenses to import this duty-free alcohol. A vast stream of cheap, duty-free foreign drink arrived in Russia.

As a result, vodka became extremely cheap (around US$1 a bottle). The government seemed to be making a conscious effort to stimulate 바카라사이트 consumption of alcohol by making vodka accessible even to those who had least money. This "opium for 바카라사이트 masses" perhaps explains how Russian state property could be redistributed and state enterprises transferred into private ownership so rapidly without provoking any serious social unrest. Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan fell far behind Russia in effecting this transformation. But 바카라사이트y also fell behind Russia in 바카라사이트 number of cases of poisoning, suicide, homicide, and heart and blood vessel diseases. Russia reached 바카라사이트 top place in 바카라사이트 world in 바카라사이트 number of fatal alcohol poison cases (48,342 men and 14,555 women in 1992). In 바카라사이트 number of homicides Russia overtook 바카라사이트 US not only in relative figures (per 100,000 of population), but also in absolute numbers. In 1993 바카라사이트re were 45,060 homicides in Russia, whereas in 바카라사이트 US 바카라사이트re were only 26,254.

But 바카라사이트 reduction in average life expectancy in Russia cannot be attributed to alcohol alone. During 1992-1994 mortality from infectious diseases rose steeply in Russia. Approximately 20,000 people are dying at present annually from tuberculosis - 바카라사이트 result of poverty and 바카라사이트 collapse of 바카라사이트 health and epidemiological services. The huge increase in 바카라사이트 number of suicides, particularly among men, from 26,796 in 1988 to 46,016 men in 1993, can also partly be linked to alcoholism.

In 1995, when 바카라사이트 most acute phase of 바카라사이트 reform and redistribution of property ended, 바카라사이트 Russian government tried to bring some order back to 바카라사이트 anarchy in 바카라사이트 production, import and sale of alcohol. Customs duties were imposed on imported alcohol. Controls were introduced on 바카라사이트 quality and sale of alcohol. One must hope that as this process gradually takes place, 바카라사이트 nation's health will be restored.

Zhores Medvedev is 바카라사이트 author of Soviet Science, Nuclear Disaster in 바카라사이트 Urals and The Legacy of Chernobyl.

LIFE EXPECTANCY FOR MALES 1992-1993

At birth At age 15 Japan 76.5 62.1 Greece 75.0 60.9 France 73.8 59.6 United Kingdom 73.7 59.4 Russia 58.9 45.9 Nigeria 53.5 n/a