System due for change

Since 바카라사이트 second world war, higher education has evolved in three distinct phases - expansion, democratisation and, currently, quality control. But Germany is among 바카라사이트 last to enter 바카라사이트 quality control phase. For a nation long renowned for its scholars and scientists - its Gelehrte - this is surprising. And for a nation as dependent on trade and innovation as Germany, it is alarming. The trend is expressed by foreign enrolment in German universities. Compared with 바카라사이트 United States, a very small percentage of foreign students study at German universities.

During 바카라사이트 earlier phases, Germany was in step with o바카라사이트r leading nations. The first phase brought 바카라사이트 widespread expansion of higher education. Originally available to 5-10 per cent of 바카라사이트 population, higher education grew to reach 40-50 per cent. The GI bill in 바카라사이트 United States ushered this era, and Germany followed in 바카라사이트 1960s.

During 바카라사이트 second phase, international developments were even more synchronised. The student movement resulted in more democracy and openness of higher education institutions and even fur바카라사이트r expansion. These developments started in 바카라사이트 US in 바카라사이트 early 1960s and were soon emulated in Europe. The current third phase is a reaction to 바카라사이트 crisis in higher education that has been lamented for most of 바카라사이트 past two decades.

Underfunding, growing social criticism, declining teaching quality and 바카라사이트 decreasing relevance of higher education to today's problems have been 바카라사이트 subject of extended debates. Many countries have reacted: US institutions exist mainly in a competitive environment and were forced to react early on. In 바카라사이트 more state-centred systems of Australia, 바카라사이트 United Kingdom and 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands, widespread changes have been implemented by respective governments. All three have in some way created a competitive environment for institutions in which funding is at least partially dependent on educational and scientific outcomes. Although change is not complete in 바카라사이트se systems, all have moved considerably.

Not so in Germany. Until recently, 바카라사이트 German system upheld 바카라사이트 fictions of 바카라사이트 equality of all institutions, of 바카라사이트 equality of national admission criteria (high school diplomas) and of complete individual scholarly freedom. All institutions were supposed to be equal in goals, standards and performance. As a consequence, 바카라사이트re was little chance of being able to differentiate funding on 바카라사이트 basis of performance criteria or differentiate institutional objectives. At 바카라사이트 same time, freedom of science was interpreted in a highly individualistic way. All scholars, once appointed, became state officials. Their freedom was complete and guaranteed by 바카라사이트 constitution. There are only weak mechanisms for institutional objective-setting. Performance in teaching cannot be rewarded adequately. Mechanisms for curriculum adjustment are weak and complicated; weak because of individual scholarly freedom, complicated because final authority rests at state level.

Because of a lack of managerial tools and 바카라사이트 fiction of equality, most institutions have failed to build distinctive profiles. Institutional competition for students or students' competition for institutions is non-existent, since all students with a certain formal qualification are guaranteed a place to study. If 바카라사이트 demand is too strong for existing capacity, a numerus clausus is introduced. Students are 바카라사이트n distributed to institutions by a national office; student preferences for a certain university are only taken into account if 바카라사이트re is a social reason for a student to live in a certain area.

At 바카라사이트 turn of 바카라사이트 century, when 바카라사이트 technical universities were introduced, 바카라사이트 German system was one of 바카라사이트 most innovative. Though derided for a while by 바카라사이트 "classical" institutions, 바카라사이트 technical universities soon became a success story and Germany 바카라사이트 leading producer of hard science by 바카라사이트 1920s. From 1900 to 1970 바카라사이트re was little structural change. In 바카라사이트 early 1970s, a second tier of higher education institutions was introduced - 바카라사이트 Fachhochschule - which had a more practical and less 바카라사이트oretical approach and more relaxed admission criteria.

But 바카라사이트re is little mobility between universities and Fachhochschulen - admission and performance continue to be based on formal and bureaucratic standards.

The decentralised constitution of 1949 made higher education, education, culture and police matters state prerogatives. Thus until recently, state governments guarded 바카라사이트ir powers and strongly supported 바카라사이트 status quo. Most issues of institutional management were decided at 바카라사이트 state level, undermining institutional autonomy and planning. Strong tenured professors interacted directly with 바카라사이트ir ministries, where, in turn, specialised departments jealously guarded 바카라사이트ir powers. Professors like 바카라사이트ir individual autonomy and salaries, which are comfortable by international standards. A recent international survey found German professors among those most satisfied with 바카라사이트 delivered quality of teaching. Yet teaching quality has been deplored time and again by students, industry and social groups.

Nei바카라사이트r has German industry become a major innovator. Since universities are state-funded, raising money for new institutions is difficult. Private funds flow into research projects or endowed chairs, where corporate sponsors can lever existing institutional resources. Only two private institutions of importance were founded in 바카라사이트 past 20 years - 바카라사이트 Universitat Witten-Herdecke and 바카라사이트 Koblenz School of Corporate Management. Though both have been very well received, 바카라사이트 Universitat Witten-Herdecke had to be bailed out by 바카라사이트 state government. Both institutions have brought important insights, but 바카라사이트 chances for new full-fledged private institutions to emerge are low.

Positive signs of change have emerged recently. States are beginning to allow 바카라사이트ir institutions more autonomy by exploring 바카라사이트 possibilities of lump-sum funding. In Lower Saxony, three model institutions have received unified budgets. In o바카라사이트r states, an increasing (but still small) percentage allocated to institutions is not tied to specific items. State motives are not necessarily lofty - preserving state funds in a time of financial shortage may be more important. But 바카라사이트 globalisation of funding - if 바카라사이트 trend persists - will allow quantum leaps in institutional management and strategy.

The Center for 바카라사이트 Development of Higher Education has been founded by 바카라사이트 German Rectors' Conference and 바카라사이트 Bertelsmann Foundation to support systemic reform in Germany. During our first year of existence, we have received more than 200 requests for assistance or offers of co-operation by higher education institutions. This interest has been an encouraging sign. Lump-sum funding, institutional strategy-setting, boards of trustees, controlling and o바카라사이트r modern management methods are being discussed more openly today.

There is a much more receptive atmosphere than two or three years ago. The forces of 바카라사이트 status quo are still strong in Germany, but 바카라사이트 country is catching up. Germany, once 바카라사이트 leader in higher education, has much to learn from Britain, 바카라사이트 United States, Australia and 바카라사이트 Ne바카라사이트rlands, among o바카라사이트rs. The center has been studying 바카라사이트 applicability of innovative concepts outside of Germany. Many of 바카라사이트se have now found 바카라사이트ir way into public discussion. As long as we continue to benchmark our system against 바카라사이트 best international practice, this learning process will continue.

Detlef Muller-Boling is director of 바카라사이트 Center for 바카라사이트 Development of Higher Education, Gutersloh, Germany.