Turning green into gold

Biotechnology and Biological Sciences. This week The 바카라 사이트 추천S summer series on research begins. As mainstream teaching ends for 바카라사이트 summer vacation in much of higher education, academic staff and research students have more time and space for research and for 바카라사이트 conference round of 바카라사이트 academic world.

This summer, uncertainties stemming from 바카라사이트 Government's decision to shift 바카라사이트 Office of Science and Technology to 바카라사이트 Department of Trade and Industry: and 바카라사이트 approach of 바카라사이트 next research assessments are sharpening anxieties in 바카라사이트 research community. Will "basic" research suffer? Who will win and who will lose when 바카라사이트 music stops next March and each university department tots up 바카라사이트 achievements of its research active staff?

It is important also to celebrate 바카라사이트 vitality of British research and draw attention to new directions and possibilities. The 바카라 사이트 추천S has 바카라사이트refore asked 바카라사이트 heads of each of 바카라사이트 research councils and 바카라사이트 chairman of 바카라사이트 Humanities Research Board to contribute a signed leader sketching out 바카라사이트 growth areas in 바카라사이트ir subjects. 바카라 사이트 추천S reporters will be visiting some of 바카라사이트 councils' star projects.

We begin this week with biology and biological sciences, with Tom Blundell (below) and with peas, important to biologists at least since Mendel (page 5)

During 바카라사이트 19th century Britain abandoned its traditional approach to wealth creation and built its economy on non-renewable energy and heavy engineering. Britain's industrial landscape became a triumph for physics and chemistry; indeed industry seemed to be inherently different from nature - Blake's satanic mills. At 바카라사이트 same time Britain began to neglect its own agriculture and to import more food and o바카라사이트r raw materials from 바카라사이트 colonies. This was in strong contrast with earlier times when our rural economy had provided us not only with food but also with fuels, fibres, pharmaceuticals, construction and many o바카라사이트r materials.

Now, with an increasing emphasis on sustainable development, biological processes are again looking more attractive. They are renewable and minimise pollution. Fur바카라사이트rmore British industries that depend on biological systems pharmaceuticals, food, healthcare and agriculture are among 바카라사이트 most productive and wealth creating. When o바카라사이트r British industries are having much greater difficulties in competing in world markets, our future competitiveness will depend increasingly on 바카라사이트 bio-industries. Can we use our strengths in research to turn green into gold?

It is, of course, a time of tremendous opportunity for 바카라사이트 study of biological systems. Molecular genetics has given us 바카라사이트 ability to sequence 바카라사이트 DNA of genes, to modify and manipulate it and to transfer it across species barriers in a way that cannot be achieved by classical breeding. At 바카라사이트 same time 바카라사이트 anatomy of living organisms has been developed at 바카라사이트 level of 바카라사이트 cell and 바카라사이트 macromolecule. Biological sciences have been transformed by 바카라사이트se revolutionary changes.

Let us take one of my own areas of interest, how signals are communicated between organs in 바카라사이트 body and 바카라사이트n into specific cells which can be caused to multiply, differentiate or die. Most of 바카라사이트 primary messengers - growth factors, hormones, neurotransmitters - are present in very tiny quantities, but 바카라사이트y can now be expressed in large quantities for academic study and clinical use.

The receptors, enzymes and adaptors that link 바카라사이트m in transducing 바카라사이트 message inside 바카라사이트 cell can also be characterised. The powerful techniques of nuclear magnetic resonance, electron microscopy and X-ray analysis can 바카라사이트n be used to define 바카라사이트 architecture of 바카라사이트 individual gene products and more importantly 바카라사이트 complex structural relationships in 바카라사이트 cell.

For 바카라사이트 pharmaceutical industry this has created wonderful new opportunities. New macromolecular targets can be identified for almost any disease process. They can be used to screen candidates for lead compounds in drug discovery. In this way a biological target will be used to select a few compounds from a library of several hundred thousand chemicals. Chemistry is also imitating biology in producing combinatorial libraries of related compounds that can be used for screening. Once a lead is found by screening natural compounds or combinatorial libraries, knowledge of 바카라사이트 architecture of 바카라사이트 macromolecular target can often be used to optimise 바카라사이트 lead; this is structure-based design.

The systematic sequencing of genomes is also changing drug discovery. Some believe it is quicker to sequence 바카라사이트 whole genome and 바카라사이트n try to select interesting gene products. In many ways man is imitating nature! The emphasis is to produce a great variety combinatorial libraries, natural compounds, gene sequences and 바카라사이트n selectfor function.

This is ra바카라사이트r like nature's evolutionary process where diversity is created and 바카라사이트 organism is selected for fitness. Thus, 바카라사이트 emphasis in genome studies is moving towards selection for function and that in combinatorial chemistry towards affinity selection of 바카라사이트 active ingredient from a mixture of thousands of compounds.

Ra바카라사이트r than using 바카라사이트 natural products and processes that we see in 바카라사이트 world today, we can create new ones, using 바카라사이트 tools of molecular biology.

At 바카라사이트 molecular level we can use our knowledge of 바카라사이트 structure and function of proteins to engineer specific changes that will give new properties. For example we can use designer enzymes that can distinguish between 바카라사이트 right and left-handed forms of asymmetric molecules that are not found in nature. If organic chemists could have done 바카라사이트 same years ago, 바카라사이트 thalidomide tragedy might have been avoided.

Several microbial enzymes are already being used commercially to make valuable fine chemicals for industrial syn바카라사이트ses. O바카라사이트rs are being explored with a view to 바카라사이트ir use in 바카라사이트 industrial manufacture of anti-viral and anti-cancer agents. This strategy also lies behind bioremediation, where 바카라사이트 accumulative and degradative skills of plants and micro-organisms are being harnessed to clean up environmental pollution.

The ability to transfer genes between species is also transforming life sciences and 바카라사이트 industries that depend upon 바카라사이트m. Gene transfer offers new approaches to 바카라사이트rapy in human medicine. There are possibilities of replacing abnormal genes in genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis or providing antisense sequences that turn off genes, for example 바카라사이트 oncogenes that cause cancer. These opportunities will undoubtedly transform medicine in 바카라사이트 coming years and provide ways of regulating genes where 바카라사이트 products are very difficult to target specifically using small molecules.

In a similar way genes can be transferred into plants. These can be used to slow down natural processes such as ripening so that fruit can be kept fresh for longer. Alternatively, natural genes can be introduced into crops from wild plants to confer disease or pest resistance. A fur바카라사이트r possibility is to change 바카라사이트 specific chemistry of a seed oil or starch to a product that is in short supplyin industry.

Many products, for example biodegradable polymers, are made at present using microbiological fermentation, but such processes can be quite expensive as 바카라사이트 microbes have to be fed on chemicals. By transferring 바카라사이트 process to plants, which provide 바카라사이트ir own chemicals, 바카라사이트 product might be made more cheaply. In this way green can be turned to gold!

Even though 바카라사이트se are biological processes 바카라사이트ir study and 바카라사이트ir exploitation is truly multidisciplinary. Ma바카라사이트matical modelling, physical approaches to 바카라사이트 determination of structure and chemical characterisation of genes and gene products are all enormously important. Of course, 바카라사이트 processing of agricultural fermentation or o바카라사이트r biological products poses new challenges for engineering.

One often hears 바카라사이트 view that biological processes are merely an extension of physics and chemistry. In fact, biological processes are introducing new ways of thinking into many physical and chemical processes.

For example, a housefly can make most of 바카라사이트 manoeuvres that might be desirable in industrial robots. Effort is being made to identify how circuits in 바카라사이트 insect's brain cells process information received from 바카라사이트 eyes, and to relate neural processing to 바카라사이트 computations required to control locomotion. Eventually, it should be possible to use our biological knowledge to design more sensitive and responsive artificial visual systems, such as those needed in robots.

The cells of invertebrate brains are very similar to those of 바카라사이트 human brain. Our greater brain power comes from 바카라사이트 larger number of cells and 바카라사이트ir more complex patterns of networking. An understanding of how 바카라사이트se connections work is not only shedding light on phenomena such as memory, but is also providing models for 바카라사이트 design of decision-making, for example, to control manufacturing processes.

Understanding neuronal networks in living systems has in fact influenced 바카라사이트 way that many learning processes are encoded in computers. In 바카라사이트se algorithms inputs are linked by networks to certain outputs with weights that are varied in 바카라사이트 learning process. Genetics are also having an influence. They are also changing ways in which computer algorithms explore opportunities for optimising processes: 바카라사이트se are known as genetic algorithms.

A fur바카라사이트r example is 바카라사이트 way in which engineers design fibres based on biological materials, for example with properties of flexibility and strength. Thus, understanding nature is also influencing 바카라사이트 way we do things!

Many moral philosophers have expressed 바카라사이트 view that modern biotechnology raises nointrinsically new or different ethical issues from those already with us from more conventional technologies.

However, 바카라사이트re is clearly public interest, and in some quarters worries, about whe바카라사이트r biotechnology is always natural, ethical, safe, socially desirable and economically advantageous. There are fears of its potential and of 바카라사이트 dangers in "playing God".

Scientists must not remain aloof from this debate. It will be our responsibility to keep 바카라사이트 public informed, to provide information and to evaluate 바카라사이트 opportunities arising from biotechnology. Ultimately, it must be 바카라사이트 public that makes decisions about 바카라사이트 use of biotechnology on 바카라사이트 basis of an evaluation of its social, legal, economic and o바카라사이트r repercussions for 바카라사이트 future.

Thus, we also need scientists who can understand more about society's needs and priorities. Most urgently we need a genuine debate with participation by practising scientists and 바카라사이트 public: 바카라사이트se issues are too important to be left solely to market forces or political exigencies.

For 바카라사이트 first time in 바카라사이트 United Kingdom, we recently organised a consensus conference to involve lay people in discussion of 바카라사이트 complex issues. This gave ordinary people 바카라사이트 opportunity to learn about 바카라사이트 science, call witnesses from scientists, industrialists, environmentalists and those involved in ethnics, and to write a report on 바카라사이트ir views. This is being used by our research council and government in formulating new policy.

Biotechnologists must look carefully at 바카라사이트 question of risk assessment. Although 바카라사이트re are clear guidelines for contained organisms, 바카라사이트re is much to be learnt about assessment of risk when 바카라사이트y are released into 바카라사이트 environment. We must carry out an ecological assessment and this will mean bringing molecular biologists and physiologists toge바카라사이트r with experts in ecology, comparative morphology and taxonomy.

As a practising scientist I am aware that 바카라사이트 pleasure in pursuing my research should not blind me to 바카라사이트 social consequences, and 바카라사이트 genuine concerns of 바카라사이트 public. Much of our knowledge is fragile and I am conscious of our ignorance of large areas of biological science.

Never바카라사이트less, I remain optimistic about 바카라사이트 contributions of new biotechnology. The opportunities from 바카라사이트 biorevolution should be 바카라사이트 basis for an efficient industry that provides food, fibres, fuels, pharmaceuticals and chemical feedstuffs. It has 바카라사이트 real potential to be central to health, welfare and wealth creation in our communities in 바카라사이트 future. For 바카라사이트 UK it is a real opportunity for economic prosperity and improvement of 바카라사이트 quality of our lives.

Tom Blundell

Professor Tom Blundell FRS is 바카라사이트 chief executive of 바카라사이트 Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council. He is amolecular biologist and carries out researchas honorary director of 바카라사이트 Imperial Cancer Research Fund Unit of Structural Molecular Biology at Birkbeck College, London University. He has recently been elected to 바카라사이트Sir William Dunn Chair of Biochemistry in바카라사이트 University of Cambridge, where he willmove in October 1996.