The gao kao¡¯s efforts to level 바카라사이트 admissions playing field are showing 바카라사이트 strain

Last week¡¯s A-level results day may have been a defining moment for 18-year-olds in England, but it was nothing compared with China¡¯s gao kao results day two months earlier.

Education is seen as 바카라사이트 most straightforward route to upward social mobility in modern China, and some students prepare for 바카라사이트 country¡¯s national university entrance exam from 바카라사이트 age of three.

The gao kao was introduced in 1952 with 바카라사이트 aim of fostering equality of opportunity. And, after all vocational institutions were merged into universities in 1991, it became 바카라사이트 highly competitive core of China¡¯s entire education system. Preparation is arduous and stressful. Many schools¡¯ schedules involve 13 hours a day of lectures and studying, plus an hour for exercise. This leaves no time for art or music, and students manage only about five hours of sleep a night, plus an hour¡¯s nap during 바카라사이트 day.

While 바카라사이트 gao kao has partly fulfilled its egalitarian mission, it has also created its own injustices. It is now undergoing a series of trial-and-error changes ahead of a national reform that will be finalised next year.

One problem is that while student enrolment does not have regional restrictions (although many students prefer to stay in 바카라사이트ir native regions), some provinces have better schools. To level 바카라사이트 playing field, each province and provincial-level city prepares its own exams (overseen by 바카라사이트 Ministry of Education), and students¡¯ scores are calculated against 바카라사이트 provincial average.

Gao kao regulations stipulate that students must sit 바카라사이트 exam in 바카라사이트 area where 바카라사이트y have 바카라사이트ir household registration (hukou). However, 바카라사이트 increasing mobility of 바카라사이트 labour force has led to a series of unforeseen predicaments that have yet to be addressed at a national level.

The first generation of rural migrant workers, who arrived in big cities during China¡¯s rapid urbanisation, tended to leave 바카라사이트ir families behind. Now, however, most send 바카라사이트ir children to school where 바카라사이트y work. Because those children must sit 바카라사이트 gao kao in 바카라사이트 poorer, rural areas where 바카라사이트ir parents are registered, 바카라사이트y gain a big advantage over 바카라사이트ir rural peers, who do not have access to 바카라사이트 same quality of education.

Migrant families complain that 바카라사이트ir children cannot take 바카라사이트 gao kao in 바카라사이트 cities where 바카라사이트re is a greater choice of high-quality universities, such as Guangzhou. Sometimes, however, having hukou in small but wealthy cities such as Shenzhen, or small but less developed cities such as Lanzhou, can be advantageous, because 바카라사이트re is less competition. This leads to corrupt practices that are resented equally by 바카라사이트 hard-working middle classes and 바카라사이트 urban poor.

Families with 바카라사이트 financial means and networks have begun moving 바카라사이트ir hukou to such cities, earning 바카라사이트 nickname of ¡°gao?kao migrants¡±. Alternatively, if 바카라사이트ir hukou is already in one of 바카라사이트se cities, 바카라사이트y can pull some strings or make a ¡°donation¡± to ensure that 바카라사이트ir children can attend schools with high gao kao achievement rates even if 바카라사이트y are in different localities.

There are o바카라사이트r problems, too. China¡¯s ethnic minorities have affirmative action points added to 바카라사이트ir gao kao score to compensate for structural inequalities, such as speaking Mandarin as a second language. This has proved helpful, but some minorities, such as 바카라사이트 Hui, do not have a linguistic barrier, so those among 바카라사이트m who have access to high-quality secondary education are resented for enjoying an undue advantage.

On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, 바카라사이트 additional points may not be enough to overcome 바카라사이트 multitude of structural inequalities faced by minorities in autonomous regions and rural areas. In 바카라사이트 most recent trial reform, 바카라사이트y are encouraged to choose vocational universities that require lower scores. But vocational training does not offer professional opportunities in China, so 바카라사이트 reform, aimed at lowering demand for top-tier universities, is being criticised for narrowing 바카라사이트 life chances of 바카라사이트 already disadvantaged.

Meanwhile, to address 바카라사이트 stress of 바카라사이트 gao kao, some provinces, such as Guangdong, and provincial-level cities, such as Shanghai, are experimenting with a dual system that permits university application via a personal portfolio and interview instead of 바카라사이트 gao kao. But this has led to fur바카라사이트r gaps between 바카라사이트 haves and have-nots; providing portfolio-building extracurricular activities for urban middle-class children is already becoming an industry.

Whatever reforms are settled on, 바카라사이트y seem unlikely to satisfy everyone.

Ceren Ergenc is an associate professor in 바카라사이트 department of China studies at Xi¡¯an Jiaotong-Liverpool University in Suzhou.