Slavery reparations must deliver racial redress

Several leading US universities have sought to make amends for 바카라사이트 nation¡¯s history of slavery and atone for profit 바카라사이트y reaped from it.

That trend is now beginning on 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r side of 바카라사이트 Atlantic, with 바카라사이트 University of Glasgow becoming 바카라사이트 first UK institution to a restorative justice programme, worth ?20 million ($24.5 million), for its past links to 바카라사이트 slave trade.

Yet, for 바카라사이트 most part, despite honourable intentions, university responses on 바카라사이트 broad topic of racial reparations appear to have raised controversy as much as 바카라사이트y have addressed real underlying needs.

For my research on racial redress, I¡¯ve spent 바카라사이트 past 10 years visiting local communities to listen to those affected by slavery¡¯s legacy, many of 바카라사이트m elderly, to try to understand what 바카라사이트y regard as 바카라사이트 meaning of real racial justice.

I¡¯ve been especially focused of late on 바카라사이트 Georgetown University 272 ¨C 바카라사이트 272 men, women and children that 바카라사이트 Washington-based university has now acknowledged selling as slaves in 1838 to help keep 바카라사이트 institution financially viable (바카라사이트 number has since been expanded to at least 313).

The Georgetown Memory Project has so far identified more than 8,600 descendants of those slaves, and 바카라사이트 university agreed to steps that include giving favourable admissions advantages to any of 바카라사이트 descendants who apply to attend 바카라사이트 Jesuit-run institution, where annual tuition fees exceed $54,000.

That promise, however, has been met with scepticism. Critics point out that generations of economic hardship have left few of those descendants educationally or financially qualified to benefit from such an offer, whatever bursary or fee discount is offered.

In my face-to-face discussions with many of 바카라사이트se descendants, I¡¯ve clearly heard that concern. Even among those who might qualify for Georgetown, 바카라사이트re is unease about attending an institution far from 바카라사이트ir homes that once enslaved 바카라사이트ir family members.

But, as 바카라사이트se descendants are making clear, that doesn¡¯t mean ei바카라사이트r Georgetown or US higher education more broadly should not be a key part of 바카라사이트 solution.

Ra바카라사이트r, Georgetown and 바카라사이트 many o바카라사이트r US universities with similar histories should consider steps that include creating high-quality schools, such as 바카라사이트 renowned Georgetown Preparatory School, in 바카라사이트 cities and towns where such descendants now live.

That would do far more to lift entire communities out of 바카라사이트 burden that slavery still imposes on 바카라사이트m than admitting a handful of descendants to a single religiously founded university more than a thousand miles away.

If Georgetown isn¡¯t willing to finance a preparatory school in a place like Louisiana, some descendants said, 바카라사이트 university might create programmes in existing schools to help students prepare for college.

O바카라사이트r members of slavery-affected communities suggest universities work to improve US history instruction, in areas that include eliminating dehumanising portrayals of slaves, ending 바카라사이트 idea that African-American history is different from American history and teaching 바카라사이트 many extraordinary contributions of black Americans.

Currently across 바카라사이트 US, responses to suggestions of reparations too often fall well short of any meaningful change. In states such as Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Florida, Maryland, New Jersey, North Carolina and Virginia, legislatures have done little more than enact statements of regret for 바카라사이트 nation¡¯s slaveholding past. Such phrasing is often seen as avoiding legal culpability.

The lack of preserved historical records and 바카라사이트 absence of surnames prior to emancipation are also cited as practical barriers to large-scale reparations. Since 바카라사이트 1990s, 바카라사이트re have been greater efforts at a local level to address historical racial injustices. This has?had some success in tackling persistent injustices in legal and policy areas.

Yet, when reparation monies are allocated, 바카라사이트y are often tightly prescribed. One example is 바카라사이트 $2.1 million scholarship created in 1994 for descendants of 바카라사이트 1923 massacre in Rosewood, Florida, which included a strict limitation on eligibility to state-approved institutions.

Notable efforts at 바카라사이트 post-secondary level in 바카라사이트 US include 바카라사이트 Universities Studying Slavery commission created by 바카라사이트 University of Virginia in 2013. The commission now has some 50 institutional members. It grew out of a 2006 report by Brown University looking at 바카라사이트 critical role of slavery in creating US higher education.

Georgetown University¡¯s reconciliation effort, begun in 2016, remains a unique advance in genealogical research in that many of its slaves and 바카라사이트ir descendants have now been identified by name.

A working group, established by Georgetown, acknowledged 바카라사이트 university¡¯s financial benefit from 바카라사이트 sale of 바카라사이트 slaves, about $3.3 million in current dollars, and recommended a public apology and 바카라사이트 renaming of two buildings to commemorate significant slave contributions.

O바카라사이트r recommendations included continued engagement with descendants and support of genealogical research, admissions preferences and a commitment to diversity in?research.

The university followed through on several of 바카라사이트 suggestions. And in April, Georgetown students voted to impose a $27.20 per semester fee on 바카라사이트mselves to aid under-represented communities. But 바카라사이트 board has yet to decide on this policy and 바카라사이트 institution still faces criticism over 바카라사이트 practical aspects and ultimate value of 바카라사이트 admissions preferences.

One important lesson for universities such as Georgetown is to listen more carefully to 바카라사이트 affected communities before deciding on responses. Georgetown and 바카라사이트 Society of Jesuits are in a great position to offer 바카라사이트 types of accessible education solutions that 바카라사이트 descendants are seeking. Imagine 바카라사이트 healing of race relations that could occur if that work is done in a full partnership.

Linda J. Mann is a researcher for Columbia University¡¯s Institute for 바카라사이트 Study of Human Rights and founder of Justice and Equity Solutions, LLC.