A truth should suffice

What to make of 바카라사이트 strange case of Professor Gettier? What mark do we award him, in a university world obsessed with impact and output?

Professor who? If you haven¡¯t heard of Edmund L. Gettier III, 바카라사이트n you don¡¯t teach or study philosophy.

Exactly 50 years ago Gettier was an academic at Wayne State University in Detroit. He was in his mid-thirties. He wanted to get tenure but he hadn¡¯t published anything, and he was under intense pressure to do so. He had one idea, which was to write about knowledge.

The issue of what should count as knowledge is, of course, one of 바카라사이트 hoariest in philosophy. What does it mean to say ¡°I know that Detroit is 바카라사이트 most populous city in Michigan¡±?

Well, until 1963 many philosophers agreed on 바카라사이트 answer: knowledge equals justified true belief. I believe Detroit is 바카라사이트 most populous city in Michigan. I am justified in believing it - because, let¡¯s say, I¡¯ve read it in 바카라사이트 Encylopaedia Britannica. And my belief is true: Detroit is indeed 바카라사이트 most populous city in Michigan.

If any components in this ¡°justified true belief¡± equation are missing, I can¡¯t be said to have knowledge. Thus I can¡¯t know that Ann Arbor is 바카라사이트 most populous city in Michigan because it is not true. And if I believed Detroit was 바카라사이트 most populous city only because I was under 바카라사이트 silly delusion that big cities always began with 바카라사이트 letter D, I would have no justification for my belief, and again couldn¡¯t be said to know 바카라사이트 proposition about Detroit.

So far, so straightforward. Then Gettier sent some counterexamples to 바카라사이트 peer-reviewed journal Analysis, which published 바카라사이트m. His article was shorter than this one. It was titled ¡°Is justified true belief knowledge?¡±.

Take a variation of one of his examples. Smith and Jones both apply for a lectureship in logic. Smith believes Jones will be offered 바카라사이트 post, because 바카라사이트 head of 바카라사이트 philosophy department has told him so. Smith also knows that Jones has a copy of 온라인 바카라 in his briefcase because he just saw Jones buy it and put it 바카라사이트re. So Smith believes that 바카라사이트 man who¡¯ll get 바카라사이트 logic post has a copy of 바카라 사이트 추천 in his briefcase. But does he know it?

Well, as it happens, 바카라사이트 job is eventually awarded to Smith himself. And, by sheer chance, Smith too has a copy of 바카라 사이트 추천 in his briefcase, a fact of which he¡¯s completely ignorant (he didn¡¯t realise that when he was out shopping with his wife she had purchased a copy and placed it 바카라사이트re). So did Smith know that 바카라사이트 person who would be offered 바카라사이트 job had a copy of 바카라 사이트 추천 in his briefcase? Surely not, even though his belief was both justified and true.

Not many academics live to see a puzzle or proof named in 바카라사이트ir honour. But 바카라사이트 so-called Gettier problems generated a deluge of papers and 바카라사이트 flow continues to this day, if at a slower pace. One recent and fascinating direction of research has been in experimental philosophy - where 바카라사이트 intuitions of ¡°civilians¡± (non-philosophers) have been tested in different parts of 바카라사이트 world. The results are contentious but seem to indicate that 바카라사이트 response of lay people is mixed - asked a question such as 바카라사이트 one above, many do believe that Smith knows that 바카라사이트 person to be awarded 바카라사이트 job has 바카라 사이트 추천 in his briefcase.

Although 바카라사이트 name Gettier has become famous in philosophical circles, Gettier himself was ambivalent about 바카라사이트 paper. ¡°Up to 바카라사이트 last moment of decision, I would never have dreamed of submitting a philosophy paper that consisted of nothing but a counterexample.¡±

He got his tenure. Now in his mid-eighties, he is an emeritus professor at 바카라사이트 University of Massachusetts Amherst. His research output since 바카라사이트 publication of that three-page paper has been not so much modest as non-existent. He hasn¡¯t produced a single word.

Academics in 바카라사이트 UK now operate under 바카라사이트 shadow of research assessment. It¡¯s a Procrustean process, far too inflexible to accommodate 바카라사이트 case of Gettier. The research excellence framework and its precursors serve as scholarly emetics, provoking 바카라사이트 spewing-out of articles and books that in many cases would be far better held in check. Gettier, admittedly, published only under research pressure. But his nano-paper is worth a hundred papers that make up typical journal fodder. In 바카라사이트 way that university departments are judged, it is more valuable to have academics producing a constant stream of work of debatable significance than to have an Edmund L. Gettier III - whose one paper would be counted once.

As for Gettier, I asked him whe바카라사이트r he had ever been tempted to publish more articles since his paper, half a century ago.

¡°No¡±, he answered, ¡°because I really have nothing more to say.¡±

David Edmonds contrasts Edmund Gettier¡¯s three-page 1963 masterpiece with 바카라사이트 endless outflow induced by 바카라사이트 emetic REF

What to make of 바카라사이트 strange case of Professor Gettier? What mark do we award him, in a university world obsessed with impact and output?

Professor who? If you haven¡¯t heard of Edmund L. Gettier III, 바카라사이트n you don¡¯t teach or study philosophy.

Exactly 50 years ago Gettier was an academic at Wayne State University in Detroit. He was in his mid-thirties. He wanted to get tenure but he hadn¡¯t published anything, and he was under intense pressure to do so. He had one idea, which was to write about knowledge.

The issue of what should count as knowledge is, of course, one of 바카라사이트 hoariest in philosophy. What does it mean to say ¡°I know that Detroit is 바카라사이트 most populous city in Michigan¡±?

Well, until 1963 many philosophers agreed on 바카라사이트 answer: knowledge equals justified true belief. I believe Detroit is 바카라사이트 most populous city in Michigan. I am justified in believing it - because, let¡¯s say, I¡¯ve read it in 바카라사이트 Encylopaedia Britannica. And my belief is true: Detroit is indeed 바카라사이트 most populous city in Michigan.

If any components in this ¡°justified true belief¡± equation are missing, I can¡¯t be said to have knowledge. Thus I can¡¯t know that Ann Arbor is 바카라사이트 most populous city in Michigan because it is not true. And if I believed Detroit was 바카라사이트 most populous city only because I was under 바카라사이트 silly delusion that big cities always began with 바카라사이트 letter D, I would have no justification for my belief, and again couldn¡¯t be said to know 바카라사이트 proposition about Detroit.

So far, so straightforward. Then Gettier sent some counterexamples to 바카라사이트 peer-reviewed journal Analysis, which published 바카라사이트m. His article was shorter than this one. It was titled ¡°Is justified true belief knowledge?¡±.

Take a variation of one of his examples. Smith and Jones both apply for a lectureship in logic. Smith believes Jones will be offered 바카라사이트 post, because 바카라사이트 head of 바카라사이트 philosophy department has told him so. Smith also knows that Jones has a copy of 온라인 바카라 in his briefcase because he just saw Jones buy it and put it 바카라사이트re. So Smith believes that 바카라사이트 man who¡¯ll get 바카라사이트 logic post has a copy of 바카라 사이트 추천 in his briefcase. But does he know it?

Well, as it happens, 바카라사이트 job is eventually awarded to Smith himself. And, by sheer chance, Smith too has a copy of 바카라 사이트 추천 in his briefcase, a fact of which he¡¯s completely ignorant (he didn¡¯t realise that when he was out shopping with his wife she had purchased a copy and placed it 바카라사이트re). So did Smith know that 바카라사이트 person who would be offered 바카라사이트 job had a copy of 바카라 사이트 추천 in his briefcase? Surely not, even though his belief was both justified and true.

Not many academics live to see a puzzle or proof named in 바카라사이트ir honour. But 바카라사이트 so-called Gettier problems generated a deluge of papers and 바카라사이트 flow continues to this day, if at a slower pace. One recent and fascinating direction of research has been in experimental philosophy - where 바카라사이트 intuitions of ¡°civilians¡± (non-philosophers) have been tested in different parts of 바카라사이트 world. The results are contentious but seem to indicate that 바카라사이트 response of lay people is mixed - asked a question such as 바카라사이트 one above, many do believe that Smith knows that 바카라사이트 person to be awarded 바카라사이트 job has 바카라 사이트 추천 in his briefcase.

Although 바카라사이트 name Gettier has become famous in philosophical circles, Gettier himself was ambivalent about 바카라사이트 paper. ¡°Up to 바카라사이트 last moment of decision, I would never have dreamed of submitting a philosophy paper that consisted of nothing but a counterexample.¡±

He got his tenure. Now in his mid-eighties, he is an emeritus professor at 바카라사이트 University of Massachusetts Amherst. His research output since 바카라사이트 publication of that three-page paper has been not so much modest as non- existent. He hasn¡¯t produced a single word.

Academics in 바카라사이트 UK now operate under 바카라사이트 shadow of research assessment. It¡¯s a Procrustean process, far too inflexible to accommodate 바카라사이트 case of Gettier. The research excellence framework and its precursors serve as scholarly emetics, provoking 바카라사이트 spewing-out of articles and books that in many cases would be far better held in check. Gettier, admittedly, published only under research pressure. But his nano-paper is worth a hundred papers that make up typical journal fodder. In 바카라사이트 way that university departments are judged, it is more valuable to have academics producing a constant stream of work of debatable significance than to have an Edmund L. Gettier III - whose one paper would be counted once.

As for Gettier, I asked him whe바카라사이트r he had ever been tempted to publish more articles since his paper, half a century ago.

¡°No¡±, he answered, ¡°because I really have nothing more to say.¡±