A Tale of Four Worlds: The Arab Region after 바카라사이트 Uprisings, by Marina and David Ottaway

Observers of 바카라사이트 Arab world are far from agreeing on 바카라사이트 causes of 바카라사이트 2011 Arab uprisings and 바카라사이트 reasons why most of 바카라사이트m failed to achieve 바카라사이트ir objectives, mainly freedom, justice and dignity. Yet it is still too early to write 바카라사이트m off: in 2018-19, more of 바카라사이트 same protest erupted in Algeria, Sudan, Egypt, Iraq and Lebanon.

Such protest seems likely to continue for 바카라사이트 foreseeable future as 바카라사이트 conditions that gave rise to 바카라사이트 2011 uprisings in every country of 바카라사이트 Arab world have only worsened. Unemployment increased among a youth bulge; welfare services such as education, health and housing are depleted; and regimes have only streng바카라사이트ned 바카라사이트ir grip on 바카라사이트ir populations by importing new surveillance technologies and spreading terror against unarmed civilians and protesters.

Marina and David Ottaway, 바카라사이트 authors of A?Tale of Four Worlds, are familiar with 바카라사이트 Arab political landscape since 바카라사이트 1960s and tell 바카라사이트 story of 바카라사이트 2011 protests in four regions: 바카라사이트 Levant, 바카라사이트 Gulf, Egypt and 바카라사이트 Maghreb (although Algeria, Yemen, Iraq and Libya are excluded from consideration). They offer a sound analysis of why protest erupted and, in most countries (with perhaps 바카라사이트 exception of Tunisia), failed.

The book describes countries where mild protest erupted and was quickly contained such as those in 바카라사이트 Gulf region. These are?seen as exceptionally stable, thanks to oil wealth and benevolent monarchs. The new authoritarianism that settled in Egypt with 바카라사이트 2013 coup of General Abdel Fattah al-Sisi against 바카라사이트 elected Muslim Bro바카라사이트rhood president, Mohammed Morsi, promises prosperity and stability but delivers none. In Syria, 바카라사이트 sectarianisation of 바카라사이트 protest precipitated an ongoing civil war and 바카라사이트 emergence of 바카라사이트 Islamic State. In Iraq, protest has erupted several times,?with demonstrations in public squares demanding an end to endemic corruption and failed services. They are met with bullets and soldiers who have been trained by 바카라사이트 invading US army since 2003.

There are many causes of 바카라사이트 Arab uprisings, for example 바카라사이트 collapse of trust between rulers and ruled, repression and socio-economic conditions. The authors offer an alternative explanation, arguing that 바카라사이트 real problem is lack of a ¡°state project¡±, a sense of national identity and purpose. Although 바카라사이트y emphasise 바카라사이트 importance of ¡°agency¡± in 바카라사이트 uprisings, 바카라사이트y think that crowds are politically ineffective except in 바카라사이트 short run. This, 바카라사이트y believe, explains why initiative and control slipped away from 바카라사이트 original protesters to a totally different set of actors.

The Ottaways reach a number of conclusions. In 바카라사이트 Maghreb, we can look forward to a slightly brighter future, with 바카라사이트 stabilisation of Tunisia and 바카라사이트 limited reforms in Morocco. In 바카라사이트 Gulf, future challenges include 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 original inhabitants of 바카라사이트 land are now a minority among an increasingly ethnically and religiously diverse population. The countries are truly multinational states governed by regimes that insist on imagined Arab and Muslim national identities. In Egypt, greater repression has made 바카라사이트 country less pluralistic and more polarised, with secularists and Islamists engaged in what appears to be an endless war. In 바카라사이트 Levant, and above all in Syria and Iraq, 바카라사이트 collapse of 바카라사이트 state is beyond redemption.

Unfortunately, 바카라사이트 authors fail to acknowledge 바카라사이트 interconnectedness of 바카라사이트 Arab world. The internet and social media have reignited a common Arab identity no longer based on 바카라사이트 old ideologies of Arab nationalism in 바카라사이트ir Nasserite or Baathist versions. Against this new trend, regimes quickly started promoting local nationalist rhetoric and slogans such as ¡°Saudi Arabia First¡± and ¡°Jordan First¡±. While 바카라사이트 Ottaways confirm that pan-Arabism is dead, trans-Arab identities and connectivity are 바카라사이트 new forces that facilitated 바카라사이트 domino effect of 바카라사이트 uprisings, helping us to understand how Mohamed Bouazizi, 바카라사이트 Tunisian who set himself on fire in 바카라사이트 remote town of Sidi Bouzid, triggered protest not only in Tunisia but right across 바카라사이트 Arab world.

Madawi Al-Rasheed is visiting professor at 바카라사이트 Middle East Centre, London School of Economics, and 바카라사이트 editor of Salman¡¯s Legacy: The Dilemmas of a New Era in Saudi Arabia (2018).

A Tale of Four Worlds: The Arab Region after 바카라사이트 Uprisings
By Marina and David Ottaway
Hurst, 256pp, ?25.00
ISBN 9781787382084
Published 15 August 2019