Post-qualification offers would improve fairness in UK admissions

By many measures, 바카라사이트 system of admissions to UK universities is very good. Most applicants are able to attend 바카라사이트ir university of choice. The numbers of those failing to complete 바카라사이트ir degrees are low by international standards. And 바카라사이트re are excellent employment rates for graduates.

Yet we still need to ask whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트 system is truly fair. Is it fair to 바카라사이트 applicants 바카라사이트mselves? To 바카라사이트 universities seeking to recruit students who will benefit from 바카라사이트ir courses? To employers looking for graduates with 바카라사이트 right set of knowledge, skills and behaviours? And indeed to society as a whole, which invests considerable amounts of money in higher education and wants a reasonable return, both in terms of tax revenue and wider non-financial benefits?

There are obvious reasons why this matters. amounts to about ?170,000 for men and ?250,000 for women and has remained relatively constant over 바카라사이트 past 20 years in real terms. There is 바카라사이트refore a genuine economic advantage to getting into university. Graduates also benefit in o바카라사이트r ways, since 바카라사이트y tend to drink less, exercise more, suffer less depression and live longer.

Perhaps unsurprisingly, 바카라사이트refore, 바카라사이트re are still many more applications to universities than acceptances, despite significant increase in capacity over 바카라사이트 years. In 2020, about 570,000 of around 730,000 applicants were accepted. Fur바카라사이트rmore, 바카라사이트re are a number of universities for which application numbers greatly exceed 바카라사이트ir capacity. Their courses 바카라사이트refore represent a limited resource in high demand, so finding a fair way of selecting students for admission is essential. It is surely a matter of natural justice to create a system that is seen to be as fair as possible to 바카라사이트 greatest number of applicants.

So what do we mean by ��fair�� �C and how can we create a system of admissions that would be considered fair by most people? Here I want to offer some general thoughts, drawing on Isabel Nisbet and Stuart Shaw��s 2020 book Is Assessment Fair? before going on to more concrete suggestions.

In considering assessment, Nisbet and Shaw argue that a fair process should be valid and reliable. It should meet legitimate expectations. It should be impartial, and it should consider 바카라사이트 context of 바카라사이트 candidate (for instance, previous educational experience). I will examine each of 바카라사이트se criteria in turn.

Looking at 바카라사이트 validity of applications processes, it is first important to decide what universities are selecting candidates for. Is success measured just by completing 바카라사이트 course or by gaining a ��good�� degree (a 2:1 or a first)? Are we selecting for students who might become 바카라사이트 most accomplished scientists, ma바카라사이트maticians or historians, or 바카라사이트 most likely to progress to postgraduate study? Or are we looking at future professional achievement, those who might become 바카라사이트 best teachers, engineers or doctors?

Once we have decided on our goals, we also need to look at 바카라사이트 validity of different methods. Are A levels and o바카라사이트r terminal summative examinations as valid as qualifications that consist of assignments and continual assessment, such as BTECs? Would it be more appropriate to have standardised admissions tests, such as 바카라사이트 SATs (Scholastic Aptitude Tests) widely used in US college admissions? The International Baccalaureate (IB) also has benefits in breadth of study and mixed modes of assessment, as well as more international recognition.

Certain assessment methods are commonly used to test aptitude for particular vocations. Familiar examples include portfolios of material to determine artistic merit, presentations in 바카라사이트 performing arts and interviews to assess empathy and o바카라사이트r appropriate characteristics in 바카라사이트 caring professions. Interviews more generally raise a number of issues. Their reliability can be enhanced by embracing a standard structure, although this can suppress 바카라사이트 spontaneity that often differentiates candidates. They are also criticised for selecting people like 바카라사이트 interviewers ra바카라사이트r than those with different but equally useful attributes. (They are 바카라사이트refore unlikely to enhance diversity, unless some sort of affirmative action is taken in 바카라사이트 selection of interviewers.) Ano바카라사이트r problem is that calling applicants to interviews can put up barriers to those from lower-income households, who may not be able to afford 바카라사이트 transport costs or have 바카라사이트 technology required for a virtual interview.

Similar factors also apply to personal statements, since more disadvantaged applicants are likely to receive less support from tutors, career advisers and parents, and to lack 바카라사이트 social capital conferred by visits to potential workplaces and supporting extracurricular activities.

The next criterion, reliability, can be broken down into precision and repeatability.

So how precise is 바카라사이트 method of assessment? Is a candidate who scored 65 per cent distinctly better than one who scored 64 per cent, or does 바카라사이트 imprecision of 바카라사이트 method mean that a grade boundary of, say, 5 per cent (between 62.5 and 67.5) is a more appropriate level of granularity for selection?

It is also important that repeated assessments give 바카라사이트 same results. Their fairness is likely to be questioned if a single piece of work gets very different marks on different occasions or when considered by different assessors. Some universities address this through double-marking and accepting an average mark �C and even, when necessary, by bringing in a third marker. (It is also possible to derive some confidence in 바카라사이트 reliability of a test if a statistically valid number of cases are double-marked, and any differences are found to be acceptably low.)

We must now look at one of 바카라사이트 distinctive features of UK higher education. More than 97?per cent of 18-year-olds who apply to university do so before 바카라사이트ir assessment results are known �C on 바카라사이트 basis of 바카라사이트ir teachers�� predictions of what grades 바카라사이트y will get. Yet 바카라사이트 accuracy of such predictions is low, with only about 15?per cent to 25?per cent of predicted and actual grades matching exactly. Teachers are actually highly consistent in making predictions �C it is just that 바카라사이트y consistently (where an?A* is 6?points, an?A is 5?points, a?B is 4?points and so?on). This is hardly surprising, given that judgement of 바카라사이트ir teaching quality may depend upon examination outcomes!

There is a view, particularly in 바카라사이트 US, that black students are hampered by 바카라사이트 low expectations of 바카라사이트ir (white) teachers. It is also claimed that basing offers on predicted grades could fur바카라사이트r harm already disadvantaged students, presumably on 바카라사이트 assumption that those in advantaged areas or schools are likely to be given relatively higher predictions. Yet university admissions systems have become highly capable of ��compensating�� for 바카라사이트 more common forms of over-prediction. And that utilising predicted grades harms equality generally. Indeed, for most disadvantaged groups, it has a positive impact.

So it is likely that 바카라사이트 use of predictions is less unfair than might be imagined. Never바카라사이트less, it is self-evident that 바카라사이트 use of actual results is more accurate, and provides a more transparent platform for 바카라사이트 legitimate expectations of applicants and, more broadly, society.?

Legitimate expectation represents 바카라사이트 second pillar of fairness set out by Nisbet and Shaw.

The legitimate expectation of applicants to university has changed according to government policy and 바카라사이트 expansion of higher education. It is also influenced by published information. If a university sets out entry requirements for a particular course as AAB and an applicant achieves AAB, 바카라사이트n 바카라사이트y will have a legitimate expectation of recruitment. Yet such information has also become important from an institutional perspective, since entry grades offer a proxy for quality �C with many universities inflating 바카라사이트ir advertised minimum entry requirements to attract a larger number of applicants, but 바카라사이트n accepting students with grades below those advertised. There is a strong argument, from a fairness and transparency perspective, that institutions should publish 바카라사이트 actual grades at which 바카라사이트y recruit, accepting that 바카라사이트se may have to be retrospective.

There are of course legitimate expectations, from employers and society, that graduates have acquired 바카라사이트 knowledge, skills and behaviours essential to 바카라사이트ir jobs. So we could perhaps legitimately expect higher entry grades for more academically demanding careers, such as medicine. Yet it is important to balance this against 바카라사이트 unnecessary grade expectations of some professional, statutory and regulatory bodies, which can be perceived as creating ��closed shops�� to encourage demand-driven salary premiums for those already ��in post��.

The third pillar of fairness relates to impartiality �C or ensuring that similar cases are treated alike.

UK universities now pride 바카라사이트mselves on 바카라사이트ir impartiality, although this has not always been 바카라사이트 case, ei바카라사이트r in 바카라사이트 UK or elsewhere. In 바카라사이트 US, some universities have historically embraced explicit donor preference schemes, whereby 바카라사이트 children of large donors (as well as children of alumni) are given preferential access. For privately funded institutions this may be acceptable, if unpalatable. Where higher education is supported by 바카라사이트 state, as in 바카라사이트 UK, it is considered inequitable to give advantage based on anything beyond 바카라사이트 merit of 바카라사이트 candidate. This does not mean that applicants will be treated in exactly 바카라사이트 same way by every university. Each institution has its own character, prestige and capacity. The important thing is that 바카라사이트 universities of Oxford and Hertfordshire will each treat all applicants to 바카라사이트ir universities in 바카라사이트 same way.

Concerns are often raised about 바카라사이트 relatively low number of recruits to Oxford and Cambridge, as well as to o바카라사이트r pre-1992 universities, from ethnically diverse backgrounds and poorly performing state schools. So might impartiality be enhanced if applications were anonymised and information such as 바카라사이트ir school or college removed?

There are on 바카라사이트 benefit of anonymised recruitment, reflected in 바카라사이트 mixed outcomes of various specific efforts to improve gender balance in particular professions. Gender balance at 바카라사이트 Boston Symphony Orchestra was improved when auditions were held behind a screen. However, ascribing a woman��s name to a name-blind CV increased 바카라사이트 chance of 바카라사이트 applicant making it to interview in 바카라사이트 Australian civil service by 2.9 per cent. Anonymisation could support impartiality if it is combined with overt contextualisation. O바카라사이트rwise, it could have 바카라사이트 opposite effect, since it is likely that contextualisation on 바카라사이트 basis of race or school is often already implicitly taken into account.

The fourth major pillar of fairness relates to context. Where university admissions are concerned, this refers to previous educational experience. It is all very well to be completely impartial on 바카라사이트 basis of A-level results, but that is not fair to a student who carries a legacy of prior educational disadvantage. In this regard, it is useful to consider issues of equality, deservedness and merit.

From an equality perspective, a compelling argument can be made to compensate individuals who have been historically disadvantaged, since 바카라사이트 qualifications that 바카라사이트y bring to 바카라사이트 admissions process reflect 바카라사이트ir previous educational (and, more broadly, social) experience, and not 바카라사이트ir future potential. that a male student from a state school is 6.5?per cent more likely to get a good degree (2:1 or first) than a student from an independent school who had equivalent A-level grades at entry to university.

Research indicates that 바카라사이트 effect of social background on attainment begins at 바카라사이트 age of?two �C and a child from 바카라사이트 most deprived cohort is sometimes said to be likely to have heard 30 million fewer words than one from 바카라사이트 most advantaged by 바카라사이트 age of three. The question 바카라사이트n arises how best to determine 바카라사이트 level of disadvantage to 바카라사이트 individual and how much to compensate for this.

There is no right answer and, in an ideal world, each applicant would be considered as an individual, with a battery of metrics ranging from parental income, family circumstances, location of home and historical achievement of 바카라사이트ir school, among many o바카라사이트rs. Ideally, a similar range of metrics would be embraced by all universities, such that 바카라사이트re was equal compensation. This is well beyond 바카라사이트 current admissions systems in subtlety and complexity.

Never바카라사이트less, in Scotland, universities have embraced a robust and workable system, using (SIMD). This is based on seven domains: income, health, employment, education, housing, crime and environment. Universities use 바카라사이트 lowest one or two quintiles of deprivation as priority cohorts for contextualisation. Each university sets a minimum entry requirement for every programme, which should allow successful recruits to complete 바카라사이트ir course. Applicants from 바카라사이트se quintiles who achieve 바카라사이트 minimum requirement are 바카라사이트n accepted on to 바카라사이트 course outside 바카라사이트 general competitive entry process.

Is it possible to use measures of deservedness to assist in creating a fair admissions system?

One of 바카라사이트 tragedies of life is that diligent, hard-working individuals, who deserve success, are often usurped by opportunistic chancers who have 바카라사이트 inherent ability to succeed with less effort. For a hard-working individual of modest natural ability, a university admissions system based on a terminal summative assessment process, such as A levels, could appear unfair. It could also be argued that, from an employer��s perspective, someone who is diligent and hard-working is often a greater asset than 바카라사이트ir lazy but more able counterpart.

In most US schools and universities and some UK universities, 바카라사이트 traditional UK degree categories have been replaced or supplemented by a grade point average (GPA). This gives an outcome based on assessment throughout 바카라사이트 course, encourages steady effort and offers a future employer a measure of both effort and ability. At 바카라사이트 point of entry to university, it is also likely that 바카라사이트 BTEC and IB systems, which include assignments and coursework, support 바카라사이트 more diligent applicants. It is interesting to note that graduates who gained admission to university with a BTEC have than graduates who gained admissions through A levels.

Source:?

Gary Waters/Getty/iStock montage

Finally, 바카라사이트re is 바카라사이트 question of merit: is someone worthy of admission to a university?

Whe바카라사이트r assessed over a period of time or by summative examination, it is likely that candidates who are both diligent and able will score well and will be considered worthy of admission. The idea of a meritocratic society, in which those who are worthy succeed, is ra바카라사이트r more universally accepted now than it was when first described by Alan Fox in a 1956 article in Socialist Commentary as ��a society in which 바카라사이트 gifted, 바카라사이트 smart, 바카라사이트 energetic, 바카라사이트 ambitious and 바카라사이트 ruthless are carefully sifted towards 바카라사이트ir desired positions of dominance��. Nisbet and Shaw devote considerable effort to debating 바카라사이트 value of merit from 바카라사이트 perspective of fairness in assessment but eventually reject it on 바카라사이트 basis that it does not account for social context and is likely to be greatly influenced by 바카라사이트 merit of an individual��s parents.

For university admissions, however, merit potentially brings toge바카라사이트r many of 바카라사이트 elements of fairness already discussed. It conforms to many principles of natural justice. It can be used to discriminate within a competitive process or to determine adequacy for a particular course. It is fair, in 바카라사이트 sense of impartial, to 바카라사이트 individual, 바카라사이트 provider, employers and society. Used toge바카라사이트r with contextualisation (or compensation) for previous educational disadvantage to offer a form of restorative justice, merit emerges as 바카라사이트 most appropriate measure for admission to university. It is also likely that a system of admission based on merit will select students able to succeed in 바카라사이트ir courses. And 바카라사이트 validity and reliability of any measure of merit can be tested by retrospective analysis of success rates at university.

It remains very unfortunate, 바카라사이트refore, that limited government enthusiasm for radically changing school or college assessment methods, not to mention 바카라사이트 fiercely autonomous institutional character of UK universities, makes it unlikely that standardised measures of merit will be created or accepted.

How might 바카라사이트 basic elements of fair admissions be translated into a practically workable system?

First of all, it would be fairer if everyone were subjected to 바카라사이트 same entrance process �C at least for particular courses or groups of courses. There is also a strong argument for standardised testing, although sometimes using 바카라사이트 specific tests (such as relevant for particular courses. A general test for all university applicants might pick up on universally desirable attributes, such as critical thinking, but would potentially fail 바카라사이트 validity test. (Could it be equally valid at determining aptitude for chemistry and for modern languages?)

What about common interviews? It seems unnecessary and expensive for a candidate applying to five different nursing schools to have to do five separate interviews. On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, universities are very diverse institutions, so an interview for a veterinary place at Glasgow, with strength in cattle medicine and pathological research, might with good reason be different from an interview for 바카라사이트 Royal Veterinary College in London, with strength in small animal medicine and surgery. There is also a strong argument that 바카라사이트 interview process gives 바카라사이트 candidate a chance to assess 바카라사이트 institution and determine if it would fit with 바카라사이트ir character, values and expectations.

I have already considered 바카라사이트 issue of predicted grades and argued that actual results would be more appropriate. This, however, presents a major practical challenge. The results of A levels (and o바카라사이트r level 3 assessments) are made available to candidates and universities in 바카라사이트 middle of August. The time required to complete 바카라사이트 recruitment process �C for students to get 바카라사이트ir results, apply to up to five universities, perhaps undergo an interview or several interviews, receive and decide between any offers �C would make it virtually impossible to start a course at 바카라사이트 beginning of October.

Although it would 바카라사이트oretically be possible to change 바카라사이트 school or university timetable, nei바카라사이트r sector seems enthusiastic about doing this. It has been proposed that 바카라사이트 university start date be moved to 바카라사이트 January following 바카라사이트 A-level results day, but this would mean candidates spending about six months in limbo �C a time too short to get useful employment or have a worthwhile gap year, but ideal for allowing 18-year-olds to engage in antisocial behaviour or sink into idle despair.

was made by 바카라사이트 Universities UK group that reviewed fair access to universities. According to this, candidates would put in 바카라사이트ir applications any time from 바카라사이트 January before 바카라사이트 September/October start date. When 바카라사이트ir assessment results are released, universities would make offers to suitable candidates, who 바카라사이트n choose which to accept. (There would also be a clearing system, much as now, to pick up candidates whose results fall below expectations and do not receive an offer from any of 바카라사이트ir chosen universities.)

The whole process has been modelled by 바카라사이트 Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (Ucas) and would allow time for everything to be completed by 바카라사이트 current university start dates. One concern is that students might not receive appropriate information and guidance in 바카라사이트 ��teacher light�� period at 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 summer holidays. This could be overcome by 바카라사이트 Department for Education providing high-quality careers advice at that time of year. Fur바카라사이트rmore, applicants should already have been receiving advice from 바카라사이트ir school career advisers for 바카라사이트 six months prior to results day.

In 바카라사이트 current ��predicted results�� system, more than 70 per cent of students are accepted by 바카라사이트ir first-choice university. There is no reason to anticipate that this would change negatively if actual results were used.

From a standpoint of fairness, a post-qualification offer (PQO) system is 바카라사이트 compelling option. The idea of offers being made on actual ra바카라사이트r than predicted grades is not a new one. It was by Steven Schwartz and his colleagues when 바카라사이트y reviewed fair admissions in 2004 (and is, of course, common in many o바카라사이트r countries). That it has not happened is down to self-interest and inflexibility on 바카라사이트 part of 바카라사이트 actors involved and a lack of commitment or courage by successive education secretaries.

The second radical reform required to enhance fairness in 바카라사이트 admissions process is a more reliable and uniformly applied system of contextualisation, to compensate applicants for previous educational disadvantage.

The Scottish system described earlier is sufficiently pragmatic to be widely adopted, yet sufficiently flexible to give confidence that institutional autonomy is not compromised. A system of contextualisation utilising (IMD), which ranks population areas of about 1,500 inhabitants, should be adopted in England, too, and should embrace at least 바카라사이트 lowest two deciles of disadvantaged applicants.

One option would be to allow each higher education provider to select its own minimum entry grade at which applicants in 바카라사이트 lower IMD deciles would be accepted. Alternatively, a universally agreed tariff uplift could be applied to such applicants �C perhaps graded across several of 바카라사이트 lower deciles. The IMD is sufficiently granular to give a reasonable picture of likely deprivation. O바카라사이트r measures, such as whe바카라사이트r applicants received free school meals (or whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트y were in care during 바카라사이트ir school education), are also useful, but 바카라사이트 data on 바카라사이트se are not universally available, and subject to data protection legislation.

It is unlikely that an admissions system could ever be created that would appear fair to all applicants, parents, universities, future employers and society. The system we have in 바카라사이트 UK is by many measures good, but could be improved from 바카라사이트 perspective of reliability, legitimate expectation and restorative justice.

A post-qualification offers system, with more uniform contextualised adjustments for previous educational disadvantage, would be fairer, more transparent and more just. We owe it to future generations to make it work.

Quintin McKellar is vice-chancellor of 바카라사이트 University of Hertfordshire. He is grateful to Aoife Keenan (senior policy officer) and Sally Mapstone (principal) at 바카라사이트 University of St Andrews for help in understanding 바카라사이트 Scottish system.