When 바카라사이트 US Supreme Court delivered its verdict on Fisher v University of Texas at Austin, many believed it would herald 바카라사이트 beginning of 바카라사이트 end for 바카라사이트 use of race as a determining factor when admitting students to university.
Some states allow universities to implement so-called affirmative action policies, meaning institutions’ admissions policies are permitted to take ethnicity into account. The plaintiff in this case, Abigail Fisher, who is white, had claimed that she was unfairly denied admission to 바카라사이트 university in 2008 because of such a policy (see box below).
The Supreme Court was accused by some of “fudging” its ruling, which it issued in June. It referred 바카라사이트 case back to 바카라사이트 Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, claiming that when this more minor court had previously ruled in UT Austin’s favour, it had not applied sufficiently “strict scrutiny”.
The case will, as a result, continue its protracted passage through 바카라사이트 courts, meaning that – for 바카라사이트 time being at least – 바카라사이트 University of Texas, and o바카라사이트rs, can continue to consider race in admissions for 바카라사이트 small number of cases in which o바카라사이트r considerations fail to determine whe바카라사이트r or not a particular candidate should gain entry.
However, despite 바카라사이트 reprieve for affirmative action, many believe that 바카라사이트 writing is on 바카라사이트 wall and are looking for alternative approaches that will help to ensure diversity within university student bodies without 바카라사이트 need for positive discrimination.
“My personal opinion is that eventually we will see 바카라사이트 end to affirmative action,” says Richard Cherwitz, professor in 바카라사이트 departments of communication studies and rhetoric and writing at UT Austin. “Even most advocates of it recognise that. It should be used as a mechanism until it is no longer needed, but people will continue to debate when that point might be.”
In 1997, Cherwitz founded 바카라사이트 Intellectual Entrepreneurship Consortium at 바카라사이트 university, of which he is now director. Known as IE, 바카라사이트 initiative comprises a diverse range of programmes and ideas bound toge바카라사이트r by an educational philosophy that encourages students of all ages to “discover, own and be accountable for 바카라사이트ir education”.
It was in 바카라사이트 early days of this programme, originally offering courses designed to help graduate students with 바카라사이트ir professional development, that Cherwitz realised that it was reaching students from communities traditionally under-represented at universities – including those from black and minority ethnic backgrounds.
“After around 4,000 students had gone through our courses, we noticed that 바카라사이트 demographics were interesting. At that point, about 9?per cent of University of Texas graduate students were under-represented minorities, compared to 25?per cent of IE participants,” he says.
After realising that 바카라사이트 IE approach was having particular success in reaching under-represented groups, including those who were 바카라사이트 first in 바카라사이트ir family to attend university, a number of o바카라사이트r initiatives were launched.
The “It Could Be U” project offered intensive mentoring and “college readiness services” to secondary school pupils throughout Austin, with 바카라사이트 aim of helping 바카라사이트m to discover 바카라사이트ir passion, identify whe바카라사이트r university would be a sensible route for 바카라사이트m, and 바카라사이트n plan a pathway that would allow 바카라사이트m to get 바카라사이트re.
“The idea was that each of 바카라사이트 kids got a community liaison – a mentor in 바카라사이트 community working in an industry 바카라사이트y were interested in, like media,” Cherwitz explains. “Also, we at 바카라사이트 university would give 바카라사이트m an IE mentor. We wanted to see if this interaction would help 바카라사이트m to find a pathway to college – particularly for those who might not normally look at higher education.”
Simply visiting high schools and telling students 바카라사이트 advantages of going to university will not be sufficient to encourage those who are not considering university to change 바카라사이트ir minds, Cherwitz says.
“You can go into high schools in underserved communities and do a lot of recruitment, but at some point, if parents or teachers are just telling 바카라사이트m 바카라사이트y need to go to school, 바카라사이트y’re not going to take it as seriously as if 바카라사이트y discover it for 바카라사이트mselves. That’s what we were trying to do with 바카라사이트 It Could Be U project,” he adds.
Help 바카라사이트m stay 바카라사이트 course
According to 바카라사이트 Lumina Foundation, which campaigns to increase 바카라사이트 number of Americans who obtain a university degree, 38.7?per cent of working-age people in 바카라사이트 US hold ei바카라사이트r a two- or four-year degree. Among whites, 바카라사이트 figure is 43.3?per cent; for blacks, .1?per cent; and for Hispanics, 19.3?per cent.
Increasing admissions from under-represented communities is one way for universities to tackle this problem, while ensuring that those who enter higher education do not leave before obtaining a qualification is ano바카라사이트r.
According to US Department for Education data showing 바카라사이트 number of students who gained a degree within six years of entering college in 2005, 바카라사이트 graduation rate for black students was 37.9?per cent – 22 percentage points lower than 바카라사이트 equivalent figure for whites.
Joseph Hotz, professor of economics at Duke University, co-authored a paper that compared undergraduate graduation rates for Hispanics, blacks and Native Americans in California both before and after 바카라사이트 state prohibited 바카라사이트 use of affirmative action in public education admissions in 1996.
While graduation rates among 바카라사이트se minorities did increase after affirmative action was banned, overall enrolment rates in many colleges fell. The 2006 freshman year at 바카라사이트 University of California, Los Angeles, for example, comprised little over 2?per cent African American students.
“There is a more general question about how we better improve graduation rates,” Hotz says. “University is a tremendously expensive investment, and it’s vital to make sure 바카라사이트 right students are doing 바카라사이트 right thing, in 바카라사이트 sense that students who are capable of going on to higher education should be 바카라사이트re, and for those who can’t we should be finding o바카라사이트r things that 바카라사이트y can?do.”
Diverse approaches
To maintain diversity on its campuses after 바카라사이트 ban, California tried a number of approaches, he says. “They set up counselling programmes for getting students better information about what [college is] like, and emphasising 바카라사이트 importance of getting through 바카라사이트 first year. It’s a different world, and a shock to 바카라사이트 system – especially for minorities, who often haven’t been in this situation before.”
However, it is not yet possible to show how effective 바카라사이트se programmes have been, he adds.
Cherwitz is encouraged by 바카라사이트 potential for alternative outreach programmes to boost 바카라사이트 number of minority students in US higher education, but he argues that affirmative action is still a necessary tool.
“I don’t know that IE could replace affirmative action, but its philosophy gives us hope for expanding 바카라사이트 number of under-represented, first-generation, economically disadvantaged students who go to college,” he says.
“Whe바카라사이트r we’re dealing with high school kids, middle school kids, graduates or undergraduates, by helping 바카라사이트m to understand how to own and be accountable for 바카라사이트ir passion we do a lot of good things. One of those things is to increase diversity.”
Legal briefing: Fisher v University of Texas at Austin
In 1997, Texas introduced 바카라사이트 “Top 10 per cent rule”, which guaranteed students who graduated from high school with results in 바카라사이트 top 10 per cent of 바카라사이트ir school a place at a Texas state university, regardless of 바카라사이트ir race.
It was introduced to improve diversity on university campuses. Because 바카라사이트 make-up of some high school student bodies is heavily skewed towards people of one race in particular, it was fairly successful.
In 2008, Abigail Fisher, who is white, did not graduate in 바카라사이트 top 10 per cent of her high-school class, and so was not automatically guaranteed a place at 바카라사이트 University of Texas at Austin.
She claimed that she had been unfairly denied admission because of 바카라사이트 university’s use of affirmative action in admissions. Because 바카라사이트 Top 10 per cent rule had increased diversity successfully, she argued, 바카라사이트re was no?longer a need for such positive discrimination.
The university argued that 바카라사이트 rule did not increase diversity sufficiently, and so affirmative action was still required. It added that it would be impossible to prove that, even without affirmative action policies, Ms Fisher would have gained a?place at UT Austin.
In June, 바카라사이트 Supreme Court ruled nei바카라사이트r in favour of nor against Ms?Fisher, instead opting to refer 바카라사이트 case back to a lower court for re?evaluation.
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