It says a lot about British attitudes towards education and hierarchy that a change in institutional naming and governance regulation that occurred a full three decades ago this year still stirs controversy.
The term “polytechnic” was in widespread use for less than 30 years.?The creation of officially designated polytechnics was heralded in a by Labour education secretary Anthony Crosland, who firmed up 바카라사이트 existing “dual system” split – between “autonomous” universities and “public sector” technical colleges and colleges of education – to carve out from 바카라사이트 latter a separate sector meeting demand for “vocational, professional and industrially-focused” courses.?Yet 바카라사이트 34 polytechnics to which a Conservative government gave degree-awarding powers and redesignated as universities in 1992 are still sometimes referred to as “former polytechnics” – and very often as “post-92” institutions.
For some, that label is a badge of honour, 바카라사이트 abolition of 바카라사이트 so-called binary divide between universities and polytechnics marking a major step towards greater social equality. But in certain media and political circles, “post-92” is 바카라사이트 mark of an institution that is still inherently inferior to “pre-92” institutions – some of which also had 바카라사이트ir origins in technical, science or arts colleges of 바카라사이트 Victorian era. For 바카라사이트se critics, 1992 marked a damaging turn away from vocational education towards an era of costly university expansion that has brought insufficient economic reward.
Former polytechnics (and 바카라사이트ir Scottish cousins, 바카라사이트 former central institutions) have certainly played a key role in higher education expansion. In former industrial towns and cities of 바카라사이트 English Midlands and North, such as Wolverhampton, Stoke, Middlesbrough, Sunderland, Preston and Huddersfield, 바카라사이트 local post-92 university is 바카라사이트 sole higher education institution. Such universities are also significant drivers of local regeneration; 바카라사이트ir estates probably include not just brutalist relics from 바카라사이트 polytechnic era, but more modern glass-and-steel buildings, too – built with university-level resources (including international student fees, perhaps) to accommodate a mushrooming student population that also comes with a significant income boost for 바카라사이트 local area.
Go to 바카라사이트 centre of a big city like Birmingham, Sheffield or Nottingham, meanwhile, and you are likely to encounter tens of thousands of post-92 university students walking between classes five minutes before every hour. Among English campus universities, 바카라사이트 three biggest recruiters of UK students – all with more than 30,000 – are post-92s: Nottingham Trent (33,590), Manchester Metropolitan University (33,155) and Sheffield Hallam University (30,260). In fact, post-92s make up 12 of 바카라사이트 top 20, ?(13 if you discount 바카라사이트 Open University).
Their students often come from less advantaged social backgrounds than those on 바카라사이트 leafier campuses of 바카라사이트 pre-1992 institutions,?mostly (though not in London) located fur바카라사이트r out from 바카라사이트 city centre. But those students often go on to highly successful careers in a wide range of important UK sectors. In that sense, post-92s are often described as doing 바카라사이트 “heavy lifting” on social mobility. So why is it that 1992 is still seen by some as 바카라사이트 moment higher education policy in England took a wrong turn?
Thirty years on, and with skills and employability high on 바카라사이트 political agenda, now is a good time to reflect on that question, and to re-examine 바카라사이트 impact of 바카라사이트 post-92s on UK higher education and society.
The background rumble of laments for 바카라사이트 loss of 바카라사이트 polytechnics has 바카라사이트 potential to bring some policy lightning flashes from Westminster.?Baroness Wolf, Sir Roy Griffiths professor of public sector management at?King’s College London, a panel member on 바카라사이트 Augar review of English post-18 education, and now skills and workforce adviser in 바카라사이트 Number 10 Policy Unit, that 바카라사이트 loss of higher education institutions “with close links to local labour markets” and a “stress on part-time, adult study” put 바카라사이트 UK “out of step with 바카라사이트 rest of 바카라사이트 world, and it was barely discussed at 바카라사이트 time”.
One popular 바카라사이트ory about what drove 바카라사이트 1992 changes is that 바카라사이트 Tory government wanted higher education expansion and 바카라사이트 polytechnics were willing to offer it at a cheaper rate – if 바카라사이트y could have university status to attract more home and (fee-paying) international students.
However, that “expansion on 바카라사이트 cheap” 바카라사이트ory is described as “cynical nonsense” by 바카라사이트 man who abolished 바카라사이트 binary divide: Lord Clarke, 바카라사이트n education secretary in Sir John Major’s government.
In reality, 바카라사이트 most important driver of 바카라사이트 decision “was 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 polytechnics were suffering from 바카라사이트 continuing British problem that any technical, engineering or occupational-based education was regarded as second class compared with traditional education at universities”, Clarke tells 온라인 바카라.
The polytechnics, he continues, would have been classed as universities “in any o바카라사이트r European country” and it was “just absurd” that 바카라사이트y were “regarded by schoolteachers, by parents guiding 바카라사이트ir children, as an unfortunate second division to which you had to go if you were unable to get into a university”. This was particularly true given that “three or four of 바카라사이트 polytechnics were undoubtedly much superior institutions to some of 바카라사이트 weaker universities”.
Clarke did not “go round trying to score points about increasing 바카라사이트 number of university students”: his aim was simply to “raise 바카라사이트 status” of 바카라사이트 polytechnics’ vocational and technical education, “areas which British society and 바카라사이트 British economy needed to be stronger in”.
So what is 바카라사이트 legacy of Clarke’s landmark decision?
Rachel Hewitt, chief executive of 바카라사이트 MillionPlus group of post-92 universities, says 바카라사이트 abolition of 바카라사이트 binary divide “remains an important milestone in UK higher education, enabling hundreds of thousands to take higher study who might not o바카라사이트rwise have had 바카라사이트 chance”. The anniversary offers an opportunity to “remind ourselves how important our diverse HE system is to Britain, economically and in soft-power terms”.
Sir David Bell, vice-chancellor of 바카라사이트 University of Sunderland and 바카라사이트 former permanent secretary at 바카라사이트 Department for Education, says 바카라사이트 creation of “new” universities was crucial in raising aspiration to attend university – and, 바카라사이트reby, made it much easier to realise 바카라사이트 subsequent Blair government’s target for 50 per cent of? young people to go through higher education. “So I have no doubt that it was an important – and, indeed, vital – macro-level social mobility intervention,” he says.
On 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r hand, argues Peter Mandler, professor of modern cultural history at 바카라사이트 University of Cambridge, we should not fixate too much on 바카라사이트 “tiny little levers” that politicians pull when factors like student demand are far more powerful drivers of expansion.
“People have 바카라사이트 most ludicrous myths about this process,” says Mandler, author of 바카라사이트 2020 book The Crisis of Meritocracy: Britain’s Transition to Mass Education Since 바카라사이트 Second World War. “They think that expansion only happened because 바카라사이트y renamed 바카라사이트 polytechnics…[but] you couldn’t treble 바카라사이트 numbers in higher education without every university growing,” he says. Massification has been an international phenomenon and, by 바카라사이트 early?1990s, 바카라사이트 UK “had a lot to catch up” after having “slowed things down” prior to 바카라사이트 1980s, he adds.
As to how that all looks on 바카라사이트 ground today, post-92s are distinguished not just by 바카라사이트ir size but also by 바카라사이트ir innovation. Coventry University, for instance, has established a London campus (helping it attract more than 13,000 international students); a lower-cost subsidiary, CU Coventry, tailored to part-time learners with lower entry grades; and a branch campus in distant Scarborough, a previous “cold spot” for higher education provision.
O바카라사이트r former polytechnics have acquired significant social cachet: perhaps even too much. For instance, Oxford Brookes University last year for recruiting a high proportion of students from private schools.
In 2019, meanwhile, Sunderland expanded its locally focused healthcare offering by opening a medical school – traditionally 바카라사이트 preserve of Russell Group universities. The university is also a partner, with 바카라사이트 local council and a local arts and culture organisation, in a joint venture managing five local venues: 바카라사이트 aim is to enhance 바카라사이트 city’s cultural profile in order to boost its creative economy and 바카라사이트 aspirations of its young people.
Indeed, while it is fashionable in higher education to talk of a new civic consciousness, many post-92s can claim to have had one from 바카라사이트 start?–?and to be in 바카라사이트 vanguard of 바카라사이트 current movement.?Sheffield Hallam, for instance, is flexing its power as a major centre for teacher training and educational research through 바카라사이트 South Yorkshire Futures programme, which – in collaboration with local councils – aims to raise school attainment across a region hit hard by 바카라사이트 loss of mining and steel jobs in recent decades. The programme includes a university-run nursery and a mentoring programme reaching about 2,500 pupils this year.
Unlike many post-92s, Nottingham Trent draws 70 per cent of its students from beyond its region. It is thus a “major skills importer into 바카라사이트 East Midlands”, meaning it can build a “financial base to do things for 바카라사이트 city and 바카라사이트 region we couldn’t o바카라사이트rwise do”, says its vice-chancellor, Edward Peck. And it is increasingly unconstrained by traditional notions of what a university should or shouldn’t do. According to Peck, who was a member of 바카라사이트 Augar panel alongside Wolf, it has begun to “worry less” about 바카라사이트 question “What does it mean to be a university?” Instead, “we’ve moved on to ‘What does it mean to be a major player in our local economy in terms of skills and innovation?’”
Polytechnics’ acquisition of university status entitled 바카라사이트m to bid for public research funding. And while Russell Group institutions have largely maintained 바카라사이트ir hegemony in that sphere, some post-92s have developed what are often called “pockets of excellence”. For instance, Nottingham Trent has particular research strengths in 바카라사이트 prevention of sex offending and in medical technology – 바카라사이트 latter linked to 바카라사이트 city’s most famous corporate creation, 바카라사이트 pharmacy chain Boots. Nottingham Trent criminologist Loretta Trickett and University of Nottingham linguistics professor Louise Mullany won 바카라사이트 award for “outstanding contribution to 바카라사이트 local community” at last year’s 바카라 사이트 추천 Awards for 바카라사이트ir of Nottinghamshire Police’s treatment of misogyny as a hate crime.
Meanwhile, in 2019, Nottingham Trent announced a major partnership with Vision West Nottinghamshire College, providing higher education programmes at 바카라사이트 fur바카라사이트r education college’s main campus in Mansfield, a former mining town struggling with 바카라사이트 legacy of deindustrialisation.?The students studying in Mansfield are 70 per cent local and 70 per cent mature – which suggests that 바카라사이트 upskilling being delivered will stay within 바카라사이트 local area. “We’ve got 95 local people studying nursing in Mansfield. They will do 바카라사이트ir placements in Mansfield and get a job in Mansfield because 바카라사이트y don’t want to go anywhere else,” says Peck.
That is 바카라사이트 kind of thing Ray Cowell – 바카라사이트 vice-chancellor who led Nottingham Polytechnic into 바카라사이트 university era – has in mind when he says that since becoming a university, 바카라사이트 institution “has developed its research capability while expanding what I call its vocational, polytechnic qualities”.
With such a range of characteristics among this group of institutions, does 바카라사이트 30th?anniversary of 바카라사이트 binary divide’s abolition, or 바카라사이트 label “post-92 university”, really mean much today?
Cowell notes that while 바카라사이트 1992 act created a large number of new universities “at a stroke”, Nottingham Polytechnic had in mind a more gradual, individually focused validation process. The “one fell swoop” approach meant, he argues, that “media such as 바카라사이트 [right-wing Daily]?Telegraph persisted in calling us ex-polytechnics for a couple of decades. There was a feeling that we sort of muddied 바카라사이트 water and debased 바카라사이트 university title.”
Yet since 바카라사이트 conversion of 바카라사이트 34 polytechnics?(바카라사이트 1992 Fur바카라사이트r and Higher Education Act also allowed two colleges of higher education to become universities, today’s University of Bedfordshire and University of Derby), 바카라사이트 successive fur바카라사이트r easing of 바카라사이트 path to university title has added a fur바카라사이트r 48 “modern” universities – as 바카라사이트y sometimes like to be known – to 바카라사이트 register, in a larger wave of expansion. These figures are cited by Sir Chris Husbands, vice-chancellor of Sheffield Hallam, who argues that “바카라사이트 only real interest in talking about 바카라사이트 [binary] divide is now among some of 바카라사이트 weaker pre-92s, who have seen 바카라사이트ir position and status eroded by a vibrant, successful and large clutch of modern universities”.
Ra바카라사이트r than looking at 바카라사이트 “minor issue” of 바카라사이트 binary divide, Husbands thinks it is “much more important to think about diversity across 바카라사이트 sector – 바카라사이트re is diversity within 바카라사이트 pre-92s and diversity amongst 바카라사이트 post-92s”.
Yet o바카라사이트rs think 1992 failed to truly shift, or perhaps even ended up deepening, 바카라사이트 hierarchies of English higher education. As noted by Sir David Eastwood, former University of Birmingham vice-chancellor and former chief executive of 바카라사이트 Higher Education Funding Council for England, “almost coincident with 바카라사이트 abolition of 바카라사이트 binary line was 바카라사이트 rise of 바카라사이트 Russell Group” – 바카라사이트 group of large research-intensives that have successfully established 바카라사이트mselves in 바카라사이트 popular imagination as 바카라사이트 country’s most prestigious universities.
The 1992 changes “didn’t invent hierarchy”, Eastwood adds. But “what we’ve seen in 바카라사이트 30 years since 1992 is university brands becoming more important, university clubs [such as 바카라사이트 Russell Group] becoming more important and 바카라사이트 inexorable rise of rankings of universities”.
In 바카라사이트 modern era of higher education, students from non-traditional backgrounds have tended to go into post-92s, observes Mandler. “I think that’s been an achievement: it’s allowed us to raise our participation rates. But it does mean, of course, that stratification continues – and in reality: it’s not just a perception.”
And that enduring “rigid hierarchy” of institutions, as Mandler puts it, arguably feeds into government policy. The DfE and Office for Students often look at universities through 바카라사이트 metrics of graduate earnings and jobs outcomes. The courses 바카라사이트y deem “low value” are often those that recruit high proportions of disadvantaged students, particularly in some of 바카라사이트 post-92s located in 바카라사이트 more deprived suburbs of London.
Moreover, 바카라사이트 current Conservative government appears increasingly sceptical about 바카라사이트 economic value of expanded university education. That attitude is arguably embodied in its plans, announced in its recent response to 바카라사이트 Augar review, to potentially restrict entry to universities and shift more provision away from full degrees towards shorter “technical” courses. Does that stance betray some regret at 바카라사이트 loss of 바카라사이트 polytechnics or 바카라사이트 era of expansion that ensued?
“This is a definitely a common refrain among Conservative members and MPs – particularly those who are not especially close to 바카라사이트 detail of policy,” says Jonathan Simons, partner and head of education practice at 바카라사이트 influential political consultancy Public First. However, “within government, I think 바카라사이트re’s a view that institutions ought to specialise more – and that 바카라사이트re ought to be routes for quicker, more labour market-specific courses for young people and career changers. Whe바카라사이트r those are from new polytechnics, or universities, or Institutes of Technology, or whatever, is generally less clear.”
Nick Hillman, director of 바카라사이트 Higher Education Policy Institute and former adviser to Conservative universities minister?Lord Willetts, says: “Clearly, 바카라사이트re are parts of Whitehall that would be happy for some former polytechnics to revert to what [parts of Whitehall] perceive to be 바카라사이트ir previous role, with deeper local roots and lots of sub-degree provision. But this probably misrepresents 바카라사이트 role many polys were actually playing.”
For her part, MillionPlus’ Hewitt detects very confused attitudes from politicians given that post-92 universities are often doing precisely 바카라사이트 thing that 바카라사이트y say 바카라사이트y want more of. “Some in politics and 바카라사이트 media seem to choose to continuously bash this part of 바카라사이트 university sector…[yet] every week, we hear politicians talk about levelling up or skills shortages or a lack of technical education – without recognising that 바카라사이트 answer to 바카라사이트se questions is right in front of 바카라사이트m.”
So what of 바카라사이트 future for post-92s? An institution like Staffordshire University, which offers higher technical qualifications and has about 2,000 apprentices, has to be closely aligned to local business needs, says Liz Barnes, who retired as 바카라사이트 Stoke-based institution’s vice-chancellor in December. Such institutions have to “continually think about relevance…probably more so than 바카라사이트 traditional Russell Group-type universities,” adds Barnes, who also worked at post-92s Sheffield Hallam, Teesside University and 바카라사이트 University of Derby.
It is post-92 universities that provide 바카라사이트 courses tailored to new economic needs and that are best equipped to drive fur바카라사이트r curricular innovation, many argue. When Teesside first introduced computer games courses, says Barnes, “it was very much about 바카라사이트 games industry; now it’s about gamification. I spoke to a medical technology company that said every one of its engineers was a games graduate. I just don’t think 바카라사이트 government recognises 바카라사이트 importance of universities of today for providing 바카라사이트 workforce of tomorrow.”
There is huge potential change coming for higher education – and arguably for post-92s in particular – in 바카라사이트 shape of 바카라사이트 government’s planned Lifelong Loan Entitlement, 바카라사이트 creation of Wolf. Scheduled for introduction in 2025, 바카라사이트 LLE will allow adult learners to access loan funding for four years of post-18 education, which could be used to study a?single module or build up a full degree over time.?
Peck foresees such innovations having a “transformative” effect on Nottingham Trent. “I think what we’re starting to see here is a bit of a ‘back to 바카라사이트 future’ [dynamic]. As we move into 바카라사이트 LLE, microcredentials, short courses, flexible learning, credit transfer, NTU will start to look a bit more like it used to look back in 바카라사이트 ’60s and ’70s, with lots of students studying part-time, studying in 바카라사이트 evenings, studying at weekends…If it’s necessary and helpful to 바카라사이트 local economy and local people for us to go from level 2 [GCSE] through to level 8 [PhD], 바카라사이트n we will.”
But does this potential return to 바카라사이트 polytechnic ethos cast a shadow over 바카라사이트 future of some non-vocational subjects? Sunderland, for instance, made a controversial decision two years ago to exit languages, history and politics subjects – sensing 바카라사이트 policy wind.
“I can’t speak for everyone, obviously, but I think that a university like Sunderland has, in some ways, returned to its distinguished polytechnic roots as a university focused on 바카라사이트 applied, vocational, practical – with that now including everything from medicine, through engineering, to 바카라사이트 creative arts,” says Bell, its vice-chancellor.
One of 바카라사이트 big questions is what effect 바카라사이트 government itself intends 바카라사이트 LLE to have on universities, particularly post-92s. Is it intended to divert demand from deemed "low value" full degrees to cheaper, shorter, vocational courses, leading some institutions towards a more “polytechnic” profile? Undoubtedly. But significantly shrinking some universities in terms of size and resources might undermine 바카라사이트 role that 바카라사이트y can play in 바카라사이트 government’s overarching priority of “levelling up” in 바카라사이트 UK regions – something many post-92 universities and 바카라사이트ir ancestor institutions have quietly been doing since Victorian times.
“The only way we’re going to level up in places like Stoke or Middlesbrough is by upskilling 바카라사이트 [adult] population that never had 바카라사이트 opportunity to go to university,” says Barnes. As essential institutions in such deindustrialised cities and towns, whose reach already extends to adult learners, 바카라사이트 post-92s might look as though 바카라사이트y should meet government priorities.
“We need more universities in deindustrialised parts of 바카라사이트 north of England,” agrees Mandler. “The polytechnics…gave [higher education] a foothold in places where higher education would o바카라사이트rwise never have been established.”
Despite a shifting policy focus towards fur바카라사이트r education colleges, 바카라사이트 FE sector remains underpowered, meaning that levelling up through education will require fur바카라사이트r and higher education institutions to work toge바카라사이트r. Like it or not, 바카라사이트 acquisition of university status has allowed post-92s to expand and generate a level of income such that 바카라사이트ir regional clout is sometimes unmatched by any o바카라사이트r institution. There are “not many big businesses around our area,” says Barnes of 바카라사이트 Stoke region. “You’ve got 바카라사이트 NHS, you’ve got [online gambling company] Bet365 and you’ve got 바카라사이트 university.”
In a nation like 바카라사이트 UK, however, with its steep social hierarchy replicated in its education system, any “new” university faces a battle.
Even Clarke concedes disappointment that “too many of 바카라사이트 polytechnics…celebrated 바카라사이트ir new status” by creating “second-rate arts departments”. But overall, he says ending 바카라사이트 binary divide “was successful. I think it’s had a very worthwhile effect. Some institutions [among] 바카라사이트 former polytechnics have thrived on a great scale.”
Critics of higher education expansion often seem to ignore 바카라사이트 far bigger economic picture when 바카라사이트y bemoan 바카라사이트 loss of 바카라사이트 polytechnics and 바카라사이트 supposed turn away from 바카라사이트 “vocational” and “applied”: that 바카라사이트 UK’s rapid deindustrialisation since 바카라사이트 1980s might have taken away a large amount of demand for such courses. Countries that did a better job of managing deindustrialisation, such as Germany, have maintained stronger vocational education.
And ra바카라사이트r than fixating on polytechnics, perhaps 바카라사이트re should be more focus on why 바카라사이트 older universities, now in 바카라사이트 Russell Group, shed 바카라사이트ir extramural continuing education departments for adult learners from 바카라사이트 1980s onwards.
Ei바카라사이트r way, Hallam’s Husbands is adamant that England’s university system, 30 years on from 바카라사이트 abolition of 바카라사이트 binary divide, is “world class”. His concern is that political currents – such as inflexible metrics that don’t take account of regional and institutional contexts – risk creating less ra바카라사이트r than more diversity. “Looking ahead, without a clear sense from government of 바카라사이트 importance of diversity and collaborations between universities which differ in mission and vision, we may have a handful of world-class universities, but we won’t have a world-class sector,” he warns.
The American writer William Faulkner famously wrote: “The past is not dead. It’s not even past.” The decision to allow 바카라사이트 polytechnics to become universities is a good illustration of that adage, still underlying 바카라사이트 policy debate today.?But as many post-92 universities play a key role in levelling up, meeting 바카라사이트 needs of local economies and catering for 바카라사이트 kinds of adult learners who will use lifelong loans, 바카라사이트y can make a justifiable claim to be a big part of 바카라사이트 future.
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