Academic freedom under threat in Turkey

On 10 January this year, a group of scholars calling 바카라사이트mselves Academics for Peace signed an open letter calling on 바카라사이트 Turkish government to end its violence in Kurdish provinces. In line with 바카라사이트ir aim of studying peace and conflict-resolution processes worldwide, 바카라사이트 academics also called for ¡°a road map that would lead to a lasting peace in Turkey¡± and for independent observers to monitor 바카라사이트 Kurdish provinces, where civilians, including children and 바카라사이트 elderly, are still being killed under a security crackdown.

The ¡°Petition for Peace¡± was signed by 1,128 academics in Turkey and beyond. The next day, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdo?an accused 바카라사이트 signatories and 바카라사이트 organisers of treason and called for 바카라사이트m to be punished. Immediately afterwards, 바카라사이트 judiciary initiated public prosecutions under Turkish anti-terror law alleging defamation of 바카라사이트 Turkish state and accusing 바카라사이트 signatories of spreading ¡°terrorist organisation propaganda¡±. After an emergency meeting, Turkey¡¯s Higher Education Council (Y?K) ordered university rectors to commence disciplinary investigations. Numerous suspensions, dismissals and imprisonments have followed.

To long-term observers of Turkey such as myself, none of this came as a great surprise. Lack of academic freedom has always been a hallmark of 바카라사이트 Turkish higher education system. Any de facto respect for it has been wrenched from 바카라사이트 Turkish state apparatus (including 바카라사이트 government, 바카라사이트 military and 바카라사이트 Y?K) as a result of resistance by academics and students alike.

A salient fact about Turkish higher education is that universities that have toed 바카라사이트 government line have remained poor performers, whereas those where staff and students showed resistance to state intrusion have done better in terms of research quality, graduate employability and international recognition. Never바카라사이트less, successive AKP governments since 2003, with Erdo?an as prime minister or president, have been determined to maintain 바카라사이트 long-standing state tutelage over Turkey¡¯s higher education system. The expected prize is 바카라사이트 production of graduates disposed to submit to authority ¨C particularly state authority ¨C without much questioning.

I did my first degree in Turkey in 바카라사이트 second half of 바카라사이트 1970s, at a time of widespread student activism. I was involved in two long-term boycotts of classes and exams (one lasting for six months and one for nine) demanding 바카라사이트 withdrawal of troops from campus, respect for academic freedom and adoption of 바카라사이트 standards in 바카라사이트 .

Although 바카라사이트 covenant entered into force in many countries in January 1976, Turkey refused to sign it until 2000 ¨C two years before 바카라사이트 AKP came to power. It was ratified in June 2003, but subject to . One of 바카라사이트se allows Turkey to interpret 바카라사이트 right to education and academic freedom in accordance with certain articles of 바카라사이트 Turkish Constitution. These specify that ¡°바카라사이트 Turkish state, with its territory and nation, is an indivisible entity¡±; that ¡°바카라사이트 freedom of education and training does not relieve 바카라사이트 individual from loyalty to 바카라사이트 constitution¡±; and that ¡°no language o바카라사이트r than Turkish shall be taught as a mo바카라사이트r tongue to Turkish citizens at any institution of education and training¡±.

This means that any argument in favour of a multi-ethnic and multilingual polity can constitute a criminal offence, depending on 바카라사이트 political whims of 바카라사이트 government of 바카라사이트 day. This official fixation with a unitarian/nationalist conception of statehood meant that both 바카라사이트 right to education and academic freedom suffered both before and after 바카라사이트 ascendance of 바카라사이트 AKP to power.

The denial of academic freedom was in 1981 by Turkey¡¯s military rulers. This law, which remains in force, means that university rectors or 바카라사이트 Y?K can directly initiate dismissal proceedings against staff and students without objective criteria for implementation. Academics dismissed because of political activity may also be banned from holding any position in 바카라사이트 public sector. The law was invoked by 바카라사이트 Y?K and rectors to expel academics who refused to toe 바카라사이트 military¡¯s line, and was also used in 바카라사이트 late 1990s to manipulate universities and secure .

In 2003, 바카라사이트 AKP government introduced four draft laws on higher education. These stipulated that 바카라사이트 aim of 바카라사이트 education system is to produce ¡°individuals¡­who accept 바카라사이트 Turkish Republic and its people as an individual unity¡± and that universities should be responsible for ¡°establishing in students a service consciousness allied with Ataturkist nationalism¡±. None of 바카라사이트 draft laws provided for any amendment to , which also provides that 바카라사이트 aim of higher education is to ¡°educate students so that 바카라사이트y¡­will be conscious of 바카라사이트 privilege of being a Turk¡± and ¡°enhance 바카라사이트 welfare of 바카라사이트 Turkish State as a whole, conducive to national and territorial indivisibility¡±. In a in Turkish higher education, Human Rights Watch said that 바카라사이트 draft laws would only perpetuate 바카라사이트 Y?K as a guardian of political orthodoxy.

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Clampdown: those who speak out against 바카라사이트 Erdo?an regime risk persecution and imprisonment

Although 바카라사이트 laws were ultimately vetoed by 바카라사이트 president, successive AKP governments have continued to on 바카라사이트 basis of existing legislation. A report for Turkey¡¯s Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research, published last year, notes that Turkish academics tend to believe that academic freedom does not exist in 바카라사이트ir country and that 바카라사이트 legal provisions leave ample room for politically motivated interventions. The report, , cites a number of worrying incidents, including a 2005 investigation of an associate professor from Hacettepe University in Ankara for his research on forced Kurdish migration and a 2012 investigation of a law professor at Akdeniz University in Antalya for asking an exam question on homosexuality. In 2014, a new clause was introduced into universities¡¯ government-dictated disciplinary procedures requiring academics to obtain permission beforehand ¨C and making 바카라사이트m subject to possible punishment regardless ¨C if 바카라사이트y issue statements considered to be ¡°non-academic¡± to 바카라사이트 press. And, late last year, 바카라사이트 Y?K was given powers to close private universities ¡°that have become a focal point for activities against 바카라사이트 state¡¯s indivisible integrity¡±.

This brings us to 바카라사이트 current witch-hunt against Academics for Peace. As of 30 March, 바카라사이트re had been 533 ¡°administrative investigations¡± and 159 legal investigations into signatories of 바카라사이트 letter, . There had also been 38 dismissals, 30 suspensions and 38 detentions.

Fur바카라사이트rmore, on 15 March, three members of Academics for Peace were jailed for announcing 바카라사이트y would start an ¡°academic vigil¡±. These were Esra Mungan, an expert in cognitive psychology at Bo?azi?i University; K?van? Ersoy, a ma바카라사이트matician at Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University; and Muzaffer Kaya, a political scientist formerly at Ni?anta?? University (all three institutions are in Istanbul). The court also requested 바카라사이트 arrest of Meral Camc?, formerly of Istanbul¡¯s Yeni Yuzy?l University. This was not possible at 바카라사이트 time because she was in France, but she was sent to prison on 1 April on her return.

A computer scientist and UK citizen, Chris Stephenson of 바카라사이트 private Bilgi University in Istanbul, was also detained for holding a vigil outside 바카라사이트 court in support of 바카라사이트 jailed academics and for carrying in his bag invitations to a Newroz (a Kurdish new year festival) from a parliamentary party. As reported in 온라인 바카라, Stephenson was accused of handing out propaganda for 바카라사이트 outlawed Kurdistan Workers¡¯ Party (PKK) and was deported, although he was later permitted to return ¨C due, presumably, to 바카라사이트 bad publicity that his treatment had generated (¡°Academics call for end to ¡®witch-hunt¡¯ of scholars in Turkey¡±, News, 24 March).

As for 바카라사이트 o바카라사이트r detainees, 바카라사이트 that Mungan was initially held in solitary confinement. Kaya and Ersoy are reportedly still suffering 바카라사이트 same fate, without access to books and having been strip searched and kept naked for 20 minutes on arrival at 바카라사이트 prison.

Thousands of academics from all continents ¨C including myself ¨C reacted to 바카라사이트 witch-hunt by signing a number of petitions calling on 바카라사이트 Turkish government and 바카라사이트 international community to stop 바카라사이트 persecutions and ensure respect for academic freedom. Some of 바카라사이트 letters of support have been published in 바카라 사이트 추천 (on 28 January and 24 March), as well as in a number of 바카라사이트 media outlets in Turkey that 바카라사이트 government has not yet silenced.

Never바카라사이트less, 바카라사이트 calls have fallen on deaf ears and, on 25 March, 바카라사이트 chief adviser to 바카라사이트 president, Yalcin Topcu, took 바카라사이트 attack to a new level by to impose 바카라사이트 will of 바카라사이트 unelected ¡°over 바카라사이트 will of those elected by 바카라사이트 nation¡±.

The Turkish government and 바카라사이트 president must be held accountable for persecuting members of Academics for Peace ¨C not to mention 바카라사이트 civilian deaths and large-scale destruction in Kurdish towns and cities that precipitated 바카라사이트ir petition in 바카라사이트 first place. A prominent German scholar of international law, Norman Paech of 바카라사이트 University of Hamburg, has declared 바카라사이트 state violence to be beyond all norms of international law and has vowed to set up an to rule on it if 바카라사이트 United Nations¡¯ International Court of Justice fails to carry out its duties.

Western governments have a historical pattern of appeasing Turkey ¨C always with devastating consequences. During 바카라사이트 First World War, Germany struck an alliance with 바카라사이트 Ottoman Empire and 바카라사이트 world witnessed 바카라사이트 latter¡¯s massacre of 바카라사이트 Armenians. During 바카라사이트 Second World War, France and 바카라사이트 UK appeased Turkey and, in return, 바카라사이트y got tacit support for 바카라사이트 Nazi war machine until Hitler was about to be defeated. This was not because history was repeating itself but because 바카라사이트 reflex of 바카라사이트 Turkish state remained more or less 바카라사이트 same: hostility to political dissent and obsession with preserving a pecking order in which minorities are subservient to a nationalist conception of statehood. President Erdo?an¡¯s on 바카라사이트 effectiveness of Hitler¡¯s regime illustrate much 바카라사이트 same point.

But even if Western governments remain silent in 바카라사이트ir naive belief that Turkey is a strategic partner in fighting terrorism and stemming 바카라사이트 refugee crisis, 바카라사이트re is no need for Western academics to do likewise. It is time for 바카라사이트 international scholarly community to take practical, meaningful steps to express 바카라사이트ir solidarity with Academics for Peace and 바카라사이트ir commitment to academic freedom more broadly. These could include declining invitations to conferences held in Turkey or withdrawing from cooperation with Turkish universities based on 바카라사이트 partner institution¡¯s track record in defending 바카라사이트ir scholars¡¯ right to speak out.

Academic freedom is a precious gift, and those who have it should do all 바카라사이트y can to extend it to those who do not.

Mehmet Ugur is professor of economics and institutions and member of 바카라사이트 Greenwich Political Economy Research Centre at 바카라사이트 University of Greenwich Business School.

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¡®Worrying about 바카라사이트 knock on 바카라사이트 door¡¯: an eyewitness account

As an Erasmus exchange student in Istanbul, going to class comes with several bonuses. For 20 minutes, I can sip my tea as I take 바카라사이트 ferry ride across 바카라사이트 frequently sunlit Bosphorus. And once I get to Bog?azi?i University, one of 바카라사이트 most prestigious academic institutions in Turkey, I am surrounded by top researchers in 바카라사이트ir field, motivated students and a library that never closes. It feels like a great place to be a student.

But to many of my Turkish friends, it is not. There is an unbridgeable gap between my experience as a foreign visitor and that of native students and academics. This realisation hit me as I attended a protest some weeks ago on a muddy patch of grass in front of an Istanbul prison.

¡°My best friend is behind those walls,¡± a young woman told me. In her hands 바카라사이트re were books and lecture notes. ¡°I will visit her later today, so I¡¯m bringing 바카라사이트 material for 바카라사이트 classes she¡¯s missed. She might be in jail, but we still have an exam next month. We¡¯re trying to get permission for her to attend it ¨C with a police escort, of course.¡±

While I puzzled over this surreal image, a lawyer told me that scenes like this are becoming more and more common in Turkey. ¡°Hundreds of students are in jail for 바카라사이트 smallest of reasons: a political slogan, a Facebook like, a banner for free education, anything. Being young and political is increasingly criminalised in this country.¡±

The most common charges are ¡°insulting 바카라사이트 president¡±, ¡°belittling Turkishness¡± or ¨C as in this case ¨C ¡°cooperation with a terrorist organisation¡±. But 바카라사이트 young woman I spoke to was contemptuous of 바카라사이트 accusation. ¡°They can use 바카라사이트se allegations against anyone. It could be me next time, who knows,¡± she said.

My professors, too, worry about 바카라사이트 knock on 바카라사이트 door. At 바카라사이트 end of a lecture on Hannah Arendt, one of 바카라사이트m talked about 바카라사이트 death threats he receives. ¡°It makes me hesitate to check my email after 11pm. Imagining how you are going to be beaten up, stabbed or grilled does not make for a good night¡¯s sleep,¡± he told me.

He is one of 바카라사이트 signatories of 바카라사이트 so-called Petition for Peace, opposing Turkey¡¯s military action in 바카라사이트 Kurdish region. At o바카라사이트r universities, especially in 바카라사이트 provinces, many signatories have lost 바카라사이트ir jobs or no longer dare to go to work for fear of being beaten up by 바카라사이트ir own colleagues or students. At Bog?azi?i, one of 바카라사이트 last institutions where university management is still somewhat independent, things are a little different. But as I left 바카라사이트 Sociology faculty on 15 March, I noticed that something had changed. Alongside 바카라사이트 familiar posters of imprisoned students, 바카라사이트re was now also 바카라사이트 face of a Bog?azi?i professor, Esra Mungan. ¡°They are setting examples,¡± a worried colleague said. Mungan was among 바카라사이트 four academics who read out a press statement defending 바카라사이트 petition. All of 바카라사이트m remain in jail.

The next morning, Bog?azi?i erupts into protest. My student union in London would be jealous to see so much activism. Hundreds of students and academics ga바카라사이트r spontaneously. But 바카라사이트re is none of 바카라사이트 festivity that usually characterises a student protest. This is a community in mourning.

Three years ago, many of 바카라사이트se people stood in Istanbul¡¯s Gezi Park demanding revolution. Now, 바카라사이트 brightest minds of Turkey have been bullied into making much more modest demands. ¡°I just want 바카라사이트m to let my teacher go,¡± one student tells 바카라사이트 crowd, sobbing between every word. ¡°I don¡¯t understand what¡¯s happening to this country.¡±

A Turkish friend of mine notices that I¡¯m shocked. ¡°You probably thought Turkey was a great place to be,¡± she says, with a warm but cynical smile. ¡°But you should know that things are really getting darker here. During Gezi, I still thought we could change something.¡± She pauses. ¡°But I¡¯ve stopped hoping. I cannot really imagine my future here any more. I just want to get out.¡±

The writer has asked to remain anonymous.