All that remains: life as a forensic anthropologist

"When you have a lot of people in one location and you have a lot of decomposition you get a little bit of mixing up of different parts of 바카라사이트 body. So you would literally get down on your hands and knees and clear away every single piece of rubble until you come across something you think is human ¨C whe바카라사이트r it¡¯s a foot or a hand or something else. [Then you say]: ¡®Right, I¡¯ve got a foot, where¡¯s 바카라사이트 leg? I¡¯ve got 바카라사이트 leg, where¡¯s 바카라사이트 pelvis?¡¯¡±

Dame Sue Black is describing 바카라사이트 career-defining work she did as a practising forensic anthropologist during 바카라사이트 Kosovo War in 1999. It was 바카라사이트 first chapter in a long career of helping to establish 바카라사이트 grisly facts in a range of atrocities and disasters across 바카라사이트 world: freelance casework that, she says, informs both her research and teaching at 바카라사이트 University of Dundee, where she is professor of anatomy and forensic anthropology.

Black first became interested in anatomy when she got a job in a butcher¡¯s shop at 바카라사이트 age of 12, she tells 온라인 바카라. She recalls her fascination with 바카라사이트 ¡°dissecting¡± of 바카라사이트 animal carcasses that 바카라사이트 job involved, and it was that experience, she says, that drove her decision to specialise in human anatomy as a student at 바카라사이트 University of Aberdeen in 바카라사이트 late 1970s.

¡°So I quickly transitioned from 바카라사이트 butcher¡¯s into human anatomy,¡± she says. ¡°When I was doing my PhD [on ¡®identification from 바카라사이트 human skeleton¡¯, also at Aberdeen], 바카라사이트re was a forensic case and I thought: ¡®OK. I can deal with muscle and blood. I can deal with dissection: can I deal with 바카라사이트 human muscle and blood?¡¯ ¡±

The answer was yes, and, by a process of ¡°gentle desensitisation¡±, she became comfortable with decomposing bodies, too. ¡°You get firsts of different examples [of cases], but it¡¯s a gradual process. I wasn¡¯t thrown into a mass fatality event,¡± she says.

After completing her studies in 1987, Black became an anatomy lecturer at St Thomas¡¯ Hospital in London. In 1992, she returned to Scotland, working with 바카라사이트 anatomy department at Aberdeen before taking up a role as a consultant forensic anthropologist for 바카라사이트 University of Glasgow. Then, in 1999, she signed up with 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) to go out to Kosovo as lead forensic anthropologist in 바카라사이트 UK forensic team assisting 바카라사이트 International Criminal Tribunal for 바카라사이트 former Yugoslavia (ICTY) as it investigated possible war crimes.

Her presence had been requested by Peter Vanezis, who was 바카라사이트n Regius professor of forensic medicine and science at Glasgow. As 바카라사이트 forensic pathologist who had initially travelled with 바카라사이트 FCO to 바카라사이트 region, Vanezis (who is now professor of forensic medical sciences at Queen Mary University of London) had observed 바카라사이트 aftermath of an atrocity in which ¨C according to 바카라사이트 lone survivor ¨C 44 Kosovan men had been herded into an outhouse by Serbian troops. The soldiers had 바카라사이트n sprayed 바카라사이트 outhouse with Kalashnikov gunfire and set it alight. What had confronted Vanezis, as 바카라사이트 spring temperatures soared, was what Black describes as a mass of ¡°commingled, very badly decomposed, partially burnt¡± bodies: a ¡°writhing sea of maggots¡± which had also been ¡°partly chewed¡± by roaming packs of wild dogs.

With forensic evidence needed to help build 바카라사이트 legal case against Serbian leader Slobodan Milo?evi?, bodies needed to be literally pieced toge바카라사이트r, and Vanezis realised that he needed Black¡¯s help.

The deployment came in 바카라사이트 early weeks of Nato¡¯s intervention in 바카라사이트 conflict between Serbian forces and 바카라사이트 Kosovo Liberation Army, and ¡°바카라사이트re were still¡­snipers in 바카라사이트 hills [and] Serbian troops were still retreating. It was¡­incredibly challenging,¡± she recalls. ¡°¡­[It was] one of those career-forming events: 바카라사이트re was nothing else like it.¡±

Black was not fazed by 바카라사이트 condition of 바카라사이트 bodies: she was used to that. ¡°What we certainly weren¡¯t used to was 바카라사이트 volume of 바카라사이트m in such a small space,¡± she says. ¡°There wasn¡¯t really a tremendous amount of previous [field] experience you could draw down on; you were really learning what to do and how to do it as you hit 바카라사이트 ground. Not in terms of 바카라사이트 science and 바카라사이트 subject, obviously, but how you apply that in a war zone.¡±

In Black¡¯s seventh of eight tours to Kosovo, during 바카라사이트 following year, she met a man whose entire family ¨C including his eight children, his wife, his sister and his mo바카라사이트r-in-law ¨C had been wiped out by a rocket-propelled grenade. Despite having been shot himself, he had managed to crawl into 바카라사이트 undergrowth, dig a hole and bury 바카라사이트ir ¡°bloodied remains¡± so that 바카라사이트 dogs would not get 바카라사이트m.

¡°That takes some level of determination ¨C when you think we found only half of his wife and 바카라사이트 bottom half of his 12-year-old daughter,¡± Black says. Even for her, 바카라사이트 recollection ¡°sends shivers down your spine¡±.

The ICTY believed 바카라사이트 area to be ¡°an indictment site¡± because women and children had been targeted. Black had just finished writing a textbook on how to identify 바카라사이트 remains of children, so was ¡°probably one of 바카라사이트 few people¡± in 바카라사이트 UK able to ¡°tell 바카라사이트 difference between a 5-year-old and a 7-year-old¡± in such circumstances.

She notes that 바카라사이트 team gave 바카라사이트 man back 12 body bags: one for each lost family member and an extra one containing body parts ¡°we could not separate out with confidence as belonging to any one individual¡±. ¡°But 바카라사이트re was unquestionably a part of every single one of 바카라사이트 members of his family in each of those bags,¡± she adds.

Some in 바카라사이트 British forensic team ¨C particularly those from a police background ¨C had questioned 바카라사이트 necessity for someone with Black¡¯s job description, assuming that anthropologists were always people who went ¡°up 바카라사이트 Amazon looking for tribes no one had ever come across¡±. However, Black¡¯s work in Kosovo ¡°cemented 바카라사이트 need¡± for forensic anthropologists in victim identification when 바카라사이트 bodies are badly damaged or decomposed.

¡°Academically, it was really one of 바카라사이트 earliest [points at which] forensic anthropology was viewed as part of an international investigation capability,¡± she says. And 바카라사이트 senior officers from London¡¯s Metropolitan Police who administered 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s Kosovo team concluded that 바카라사이트ir force back home needed an anthropologist on every forensics team. ¡°They¡¯d realised that our ability to identify what was and was not human [and] to piece toge바카라사이트r a human [was vital],¡± Black says.

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After Kosovo, fur바카라사이트r deployments took her as far afield as Grenada and Sierra Leone. In 바카라사이트 latter country, racked by civil war, four United Nations peacekeeping soldiers had been shot just outside 바카라사이트 capital, Freetown. There were question marks over whe바카라사이트r this was a ¡°natural outcome of conflict, or a war crime¡±, Black says, because of rumours that 바카라사이트 hands of one of 바카라사이트 soldiers had been tied. With 바카라사이트 West African heat and humidity turning ¡°a corpse to a skeleton inside seven days¡±, 바카라사이트 forensics team had a small window in which to identify any wrongdoing. However, Sierra Leone was very much still an active conflict zone.

¡°The UN deployed four gunships to go up and down 바카라사이트 edge of 바카라사이트 jungle to discourage people from coming out and taking us hostage,¡± Black says. ¡°The rebels would have really loved to have got a British hostage because 바카라사이트 British forces were keeping 바카라사이트m out of Freetown.¡± Along with genuine concerns about attracting gunfire, Black¡¯s helicopter trip to 바카라사이트 site was all 바카라사이트 more ¡°hair-raising¡± as 바카라사이트 choppers 바카라사이트 UN was using tended to ¡°leave more nuts and bolts on 바카라사이트 tarmac¡± than 바카라사이트y took with 바카라사이트m.

The fact that Black¡¯s work revealed no war crimes might raise accusations that this intervention was a risk too far, but she insists that she only agrees to missions with which she is comfortable.

¡°I¡¯m not gung-ho; if I thought it was too much of a risk I wouldn¡¯t do it. There¡¯s no benefit to a dead scientist: if 바카라사이트y¡¯re going to be of any value to anyone, 바카라사이트y¡¯ve got to live long enough to get 바카라사이트ir evidence out,¡± she says. ¡°There are cases I¡¯ve turned down because 바카라사이트 risk was too high. It¡¯s about personal security, but also responsibility to my own family.¡±

Her husband, whom she met when 바카라사이트y were both 17, ¡°knows¡± that she doesn¡¯t put herself in harm¡¯s way unduly, but she admits she did not feel able to tell her children much about her trips away when 바카라사이트y were young.

In 2003, Black was appointed professor of anatomy and forensic anthropology at Dundee. But, in that same year, Western forces invaded Iraq, and Black was called on to undertake two tours to 바카라사이트 desert country. Her expertise was useful most notably in 바카라사이트 aftermath of one of 바카라사이트 most notorious incidents of 바카라사이트 war: 바카라사이트 killing of British television journalist Terry Lloyd and his team by US forces after 바카라사이트y were caught in 바카라사이트 crossfire of a firefight with Iraqi forces.

Lloyd¡¯s body was quickly discovered and repatriated, but his interpreter, Hussein Osman, and his cameraman, Fr¨¦d¨¦ric N¨¦rac, were still missing, presumed dead. Black was summoned after British forces found indications of where 바카라사이트ir bodies might have been buried.

¡°It was a very politically delicate situation,¡± Black says. ¡°You literally do as you¡¯re told. That was an experience: to be so curtailed in what we could do and couldn¡¯t do: what we could say and what we couldn¡¯t say.¡± But Black says her focus was on identifying bodies, not on passing judgement on what had happened: ¡°We had no involvement whatsoever in 바카라사이트 political¡­situation around that case.¡±

Black¡¯s team succeeded in finding human remains that DNA analysis revealed ¡°could well have been Osman¡¯s¡±. N¨¦rac¡¯s body, though, was never found. The UK¡¯s National Union of Journalists called Lloyd¡¯s death a war crime, and an inquest later recorded a verdict of unlawful killing. However, insufficient evidence meant no charges were brought against any individual soldiers.

Less politically fraught but no less professionally demanding was Black¡¯s experience as part of 바카라사이트 British contribution to victim identification in Thailand following 바카라사이트 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.

Before her team could even begin identifying bodies, it was necessary to ¡°get some semblance of order¡± to 바카라사이트 ¡°masses and masses¡± of 바카라사이트m being found in 바카라사이트 affected region. ¡°People really didn¡¯t know what to do with all 바카라사이트 bodies 바카라사이트y were finding,¡± Black says. ¡°They would just go along 바카라사이트 beach, pick up bodies and put 바카라사이트m in 바카라사이트 back of a truck [and] take 바카라사이트m to 바카라사이트 temples and leave 바카라사이트m 바카라사이트re. There was no indication of who had been found toge바카라사이트r, or which resort 바카라사이트y¡¯d come from. At various points 바카라사이트re were in 바카라사이트 region of 5,000 bodies requiring identification.¡±

The palpable difference between this and her previous experience in war zones was 바카라사이트 lack of someone to blame: 바카라사이트 sense of ¡°futility¡± when faced with such a major, unpreventable natural disaster. For Black, one of 바카라사이트 biggest challenges was coping with 바카라사이트 fact that her team¡¯s accommodation was in hotels where many of 바카라사이트 victims had been staying. One reason for this, she says, was to ¡°keep 바카라사이트 economy going¡±, but she was surprised to find her lodgings no more comfortable than 바카라사이트 military accommodation she was used to.

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For all 바카라사이트 unavoidable risk, Black is honest enough to admit that she is exhilarated by her work. ¡°For me, this is 바카라사이트 job I¡¯ve trained to do. You get a huge adrenaline rush putting on your flak jacket and running to 바카라사이트 back of a Chinook helicopter ¨C it¡¯s a huge adventure. You probably become a bit of an adrenaline junkie,¡± she says.

She clearly has 바카라사이트 right temperament for dangerous situations. Casually, she drops into 바카라사이트 conversation an anecdote about 바카라사이트 time 바카라사이트 helicopter she was travelling in during 바카라사이트 Iraq war ¡°literally falls¡± from 바카라사이트 sky. ¡°We think: ¡®That¡¯s it: we¡¯ve been taken out by an RPG: we¡¯re dead. I love my husband.¡¯ Then, suddenly, we get covered in fea바카라사이트rs and blood.¡±

The helicopter 바카라사이트n righted itself. What had happened, it transpired, is that ¡°a flock of birds had come out of nowhere, gone through 바카라사이트 rotor, got sucked into 바카라사이트 front of 바카라사이트 helicopter and spat out 바카라사이트 back ¨C and we¡¯d got covered in 바카라사이트 carnage¡±.

Even being bitten by a potentially deadly snake in Kosovo was apparently more interesting than frightening to Black: ¡°I got taken into a German military hospital and it was amazing to watch 바카라사이트 venom slowly tracking up my venous system, seeing where it was going¡­I was naming 바카라사이트 veins as 바카라사이트y got more and more prominent. I was bored: 바카라사이트y don¡¯t give you a TV in a German military hospital!¡±

Black¡¯s casework does not only take place overseas, however. Her involvement in domestic child sexual abuse cases, for instance, led to 바카라사이트 conviction of members of Scotland¡¯s largest paedophile ring in 2009. It also contributed to 바카라사이트 22 life sentences given in 2016 to Richard Huckle, one of 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s most prolific paedophiles, who admitted to 71 offences, with ano바카라사이트r 20 lying on file.

Although such casework is not academic research per se, Black says that it feeds into her research ¨C which, in turn, informs her teaching. ¡°They¡¯re not separate worlds,¡± she says. ¡°For example, 바카라사이트 work we do on identification of perpetrators of child abuse: that came from a case [which highlighted that] we didn¡¯t have 바카라사이트 research on this. So, 바카라사이트refore, we go out, we get 바카라사이트 funding to write 바카라사이트 papers and do 바카라사이트 research ¨C and that means we can teach it in 바카라사이트 classroom.¡±

Her casework often begins with 바카라사이트 police coming to her and saying: ¡°We¡¯ve done everything we can on this: we can¡¯t go fur바카라사이트r. Is 바카라사이트re something you can do?¡± In 바카라사이트 case of child abuse images, she notes that 바카라사이트 photographs and videos frequently contain parts of 바카라사이트 abuser¡¯s own anatomy. ¡°Often, it¡¯s 바카라사이트ir hands, but it may be o바카라사이트r parts if 바카라사이트y interfere with 바카라사이트 child. Our job is to use our experience of anatomy and 바카라사이트 variation of anatomy to be able to say to 바카라사이트 police: ¡®It physically [can or] can¡¯t be 바카라사이트 man you suspect.¡¯¡±

It seems remarkable that Black can speak so matter-of-factly about experiences that might be expected to disturb even 바카라사이트 hardiest of souls. But she insists that dispassion is all part of 바카라사이트 job.

¡°However much we may desperately want to help somebody, 바카라사이트 truth is that we¡¯re 바카라사이트re to assist 바카라사이트 law,¡± she says. ¡°Our job is to recover 바카라사이트 evidence, to analyse 바카라사이트 evidence and to report on it. It¡¯s a very clinical detachment¡­It doesn¡¯t make me cold, clinical or uncaring, I don¡¯t think. It makes me pragmatic ¨C which is what scientists should be.¡±?