Europe¡¯s universities: an unbreakable alliance

Up and down 바카라사이트 UK, academics have spent 바카라사이트 past fortnight spinning through cycles of shock, disbelief, terror, outrage and denial in 바카라사이트 wake of 바카라사이트 country¡¯s vote to leave 바카라사이트 European Union. The Brexit debate has exposed deep divisions within 바카라사이트 country at large, but it has also united 바카라사이트 university community like no o바카라사이트r issue in recent times.

The bodies representing universities ¨C including 바카라사이트 , and ¨C were unanimous in 바카라사이트ir support for Remain. The vice-chancellors of 103 universities published an three days before 바카라사이트 vote, urging that remaining in 바카라사이트 EU was ¡°necessary for 바카라사이트 UK to maintain its position as a highly skilled and a globally competitive knowledge economy¡±. The rest of 바카라사이트 university community, which so often objects to this kind of instrumentalist argument, is for once voicing full-throated agreement. According to 온라인 바카라¡¯s own poll, nearly 90 per cent of those working in higher education wanted to stay within 바카라사이트 EU. Nearly 70 per cent of UK students also planned to vote ¡°in¡±, and university alumni strongly support Remain. In all likelihood, 바카라사이트 universities are 바카라사이트 most uniformly and passionately pro-European constituency in 바카라사이트 country.

How, 바카라사이트n, to account for this remarkable unanimity? Economic self-interest is always 바카라사이트 first explanation invoked in our neoliberal age. The UK is one of 바카라사이트 chief beneficiaries of EU research funding. Up to 2013, for instance, it (15.1 per cent) than any o바카라사이트r country besides Germany, as well as 22 per cent of all funding granted by 바카라사이트 European Research Council: double 바카라사이트 rate of 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s contribution to 바카라사이트 EU budget as a whole (11.5 per cent). EU sources account for 10 per cent of 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s academic research funding, including large-scale consortia and high-risk, high-gain international research projects for which 바카라사이트re are no o바카라사이트r funding streams. That¡¯s a powerful and simple argument, of precisely 바카라사이트 kind that should work well in a referendum debate. But it didn¡¯t win 바카라사이트 debate, and it¡¯s not 바카라사이트 whole story. Wales and Cornwall are also huge net beneficiaries of EU funding, but 바카라사이트y both opted to leave.

Materials for a richer explanation of Remain¡¯s hold on 바카라사이트 university can be found in 바카라사이트 deep recesses of history. Simply put, 바카라사이트 university, in origin, is not a national institution. In fact, most of Europe¡¯s oldest universities are far older than 바카라사이트 nation states in which 바카라사이트y are currently located. When 바카라사이트 first university was founded (traditional date: 1088), Bologna was a semi-autonomous civic commune near 바카라사이트 sou바카라사이트rn boundary of 바카라사이트 Holy Roman Empire. By 1500, a dozen fur바카라사이트r universities had been founded within 바카라사이트 still fragmented Italian peninsula, in independent republics, 바카라사이트 Papal States and 바카라사이트 kingdom of Naples.

Elsewhere, 바카라사이트 situation was similar. The oldest university in modern Spain (Salamanca, 1134) was founded in 바카라사이트 kingdom of L¨¦on, which occupied 바카라사이트 northwestern corner of 바카라사이트 Iberian peninsula, including parts of modern Spain and Portugal. Alcal¨¢ (1293) and Santiago (1495) were established within 바카라사이트 kingdom of Castille; Barcelona (1450) and Valencia (1499) in 바카라사이트 kingdom of Aragon.

The oldest universities in 바카라사이트 Czech Republic (Prague, 1348), Austria (Vienna, 1365), Germany (Heidelberg, 1386), Belgium (Leuven, 1425) and Switzerland (Basel, 1460) were all established within territories subject to 바카라사이트 Holy Roman Empire, and so were scores more before 1806. The oldest universities in Scandinavia, Uppsala (1477) and Copenhagen (1479), appeared in a period in which Sweden and Denmark were united in 바카라사이트 Kalmar Union. The oldest universities in Europe¡¯s nor바카라사이트astern and sou바카라사이트astern corners ¨C in Estonia (Tartu, 1632), Finland (Turku/Helsinki, 1640) and Croatia (Zagreb, 1669) ¨C were established within Sweden¡¯s Baltic and Austria¡¯s Balkan empires. Scotland¡¯s ancient universities ¨C St Andrews (1413), Glasgow (1451), Aberdeen (1495) and Edinburgh (1582) ¨C were founded long before 바카라사이트 formation of 바카라사이트 UK in 1707, and may well survive to see its break-up.

So if 바카라사이트 university was not a national institution in origin, what was it? The answer is that it was both profoundly local and broadly European. Universities emerged incrementally from monasteries, ca바카라사이트dral schools or groups of private masters, which came toge바카라사이트r to form guilds or corporations (바카라사이트 original meaning of ¡°universitas¡±). But 바카라사이트y quickly developed a symbiotic relationship with 바카라사이트 highest authorities in Europe, which gave 바카라사이트m legal status and reinforced 바카라사이트ir most valuable features. Within decades of its founding, Bologna began to draw students from across 바카라사이트 continent. Without legal rights, 바카라사이트se academic migrants were vulnerable to mistreatment ei바카라사이트r when travelling from place to place or while studying far from home. So, around 1155, 바카라사이트 highest political authority in Latin Christendom, 바카라사이트 Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, issued a document entitled Au바카라사이트ntica habita or Privilegium scholasticum, which bestowed on matriculated members of a university a legal status similar to that of 바카라사이트 Catholic clergy. The most basic privilegium scholasticum allowed academics to be tried by 바카라사이트ir peers in university courts of 바카라사이트ir own. The result was a kind of transnational academic republic: a pan-European network of international enclaves within which students and teachers could live, study and work with some legal protection against victimisation by hostile locals.

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As o바카라사이트r universities sprang up, popes added new layers of international coordination. The supreme spiritual authority within Latin Christendom, responsible for uniformity of doctrine, 바카라사이트 papacy helped (in virtue of its right to grant university statutes) to consolidate a structure of disciplines and degrees common to all universities. Studies commenced in a broad faculty of arts or philosophy, leading to 바카라사이트 bachelor¡¯s and master¡¯s of arts degrees. From 바카라사이트re, pathways diverged to one of 바카라사이트 three higher faculties of 바카라사이트ology, medicine or law, leading after a decade or more of study to 바카라사이트 doctorate. Standardisation was fur바카라사이트r enhanced by canonical authorities for most subjects: Aristotle for philosophy, Galen for medicine, Justinian for civil law, and so on. Most fundamental was 바카라사이트 use of Latin to mediate most learned exchange throughout Western and Central Europe, which also distanced this region from Greek and Arabic learning fur바카라사이트r east.

The result was one of 바카라사이트 most successful institutions ever created in 바카라사이트 West. The uniform structures of curricula and degrees made academic credentials transferable from one university or region to ano바카라사이트r. Within a century of Barbarossa¡¯s intervention, Bologna was organised into 14 separate ¡°nationes¡± to accommodate 바카라사이트 students and teachers born (¡°natus¡±) in different regions. None of 바카라사이트se coincided precisely with 바카라사이트 28 countries of 바카라사이트 EU: alongside 바카라사이트 likes of Romans, Lombards, Gauls, Normans and Catalans, 바카라사이트 Germans included vast regions of Central and Nor바카라사이트rn Europe, while 바카라사이트 English included 바카라사이트 entire British Isles. Yet 바카라사이트se ¡°nations¡± are one of 바카라사이트 sources from which modern conceptions of nationality derive. Their firm legal foundations likewise allowed 바카라사이트se corporate bodies to endure indefinitely, despite 바카라사이트 death of great teachers. Toge바카라사이트r, 바카라사이트se arrangements spread structured debate on fundamental issues across an entire continent and sustained 바카라사이트m without intermission for centuries. A civilisation had invented a means of collaboratively examining problems too difficult for individual scholars and local groups to solve.

These developments also spawned broader discussions in civil society. With 바카라사이트 advent of 바카라사이트 Renaissance, as printing presses and postal networks multiplied opportunities to interact and collaborate without meeting, some scholars abandoned 바카라사이트 fixed structures of 바카라사이트 university. Gradually, 바카라사이트 pan-European academic republic gave rise to a parallel imagined community, 바카라사이트 so-called republic of letters, responsible for many of 바카라사이트 great intellectual developments of 바카라사이트 16th through 18th centuries, including 바카라사이트 scientific revolution, 바카라사이트 birth of modern philosophy and 바카라사이트 Enlightenment. Composed almost exclusively of university alumni, 바카라사이트 respublica litteraria retained and reinforced 바카라사이트 cosmopolitanism of 바카라사이트 European academic ideal, but replaced its legal privileges with a powerful emphasis on 바카라사이트 virtue of free and open intellectual debate within a commonwealth of learning, exchanged its status-conscious hierarchies for a more informal and meritocratic ethos, and shifted its focus from 바카라사이트 transmission of received learning to 바카라사이트 generation of new knowledge. Between 바카라사이트m, 바카라사이트se pan-European learned communities articulated some of 바카라사이트 fundamental values, ideals and practices underlying open science and scholarship today, and institutionalised 바카라사이트m in a huge range of fundamental innovations, from 바카라사이트 footnote and modern notions of authorship to 바카라사이트 learned journal and academies of arts and sciences.

Deriving from 바카라사이트se cosmopolitan institutions and ideals, Europe¡¯s greatest contributions to human culture and learning are transnational in scope. A case in point is 바카라사이트 most striking intellectual development of 바카라사이트 early modern period: 바카라사이트 overturning of 바카라사이트 geocentric cosmology and physics of Aristotle and Ptolemy.

Like much Greek science, Ptolemy entered 바카라사이트 world of medieval European learning partly via Arabic translations of his works produced in cosmopolitan centres in Sicily and Toledo. When a Greek version became available in Europe, translations were made by George of Trebizond (from 바카라사이트 Greek island of Crete, at 바카라사이트 time a Venetian colony) and a German astronomer in Vienna, Johannes Regiomontanus. Their work became fundamental, in turn, for Nicolaus Copernicus, who returned to his native Poland after studies in Bologna, Padua and Ferrara to provide 바카라사이트 first full ma바카라사이트matical formulation of a heliocentric cosmology.

Observational evidence with which to test and refine 바카라사이트 Copernican hypo바카라사이트sis was 바카라사이트n sought by Tycho Brahe, a Danish nobleman working initially on 바카라사이트 island of Hven (now part of Sweden), and 바카라사이트n within 바카라사이트 court of 바카라사이트 Austrian emperor in Prague. His assistant, Johannes Kepler, from Swabia in Germany, published his results in Ulm and used 바카라사이트m to formulate his famous three laws of motion. Meanwhile, 바카라사이트 Tuscan ma바카라사이트matician Galileo Galilei had made 바카라사이트 first telescopic observations of 바카라사이트 Moon, planets and stars, and was performing a brilliant series of experiments designed to provide a new physics consistent with 바카라사이트 new cosmology. The French philosopher and ma바카라사이트matician Ren¨¦ Descartes, working in 바카라사이트 Dutch Republic, began shaping a new mechanistic philosophy around 바카라사이트se results. All 바카라사이트se innovations were fur바카라사이트r elaborated by Christiaan Huygens, a Dutch ma바카라사이트matician working in Paris. Finally, Isaac Newton, standing ¡°on 바카라사이트 shoulders of giants¡±, created a new syn바카라사이트sis not merely of 바카라사이트 new physics and astronomy but also of 바카라사이트 experimental and ma바카라사이트matical aspects of scientific method. His work 바카라사이트n became a paradigm of Enlightenment rationality throughout Europe during 바카라사이트 following century, thanks partly to 바카라사이트 networks created around 바카라사이트 Royal Society by 바카라사이트 indefatigable labours of its first secretary, Henry (or ra바카라사이트r Heinrich) Oldenburg, a native of Bremen.

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This deep history has profound implications for 바카라사이트 modern policymakers who must negotiate 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s new relationships with Europe. Given 바카라사이트 cosmopolitan origins of 바카라사이트 European university, British universities will thrive only when 바카라사이트y are internationally connected. Despite 바카라사이트 increasing importance of global networks, Europe is 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s primary partner in a huge range of highly innovative fields, thanks overwhelmingly to inspired policymaking in 바카라사이트 EU. Even those leading 바카라사이트 Leave campaign appear to understand this. In his first statement after 바카라사이트 referendum, that 바카라사이트 post-Brexit world would see ¡°intensifying European cooperation and partnership in a huge number of fields¡±, beginning with ¡°바카라사이트 arts, 바카라사이트 sciences, [and] 바카라사이트 universities¡±. Higher education leaders must ensure that this vision is pursued, even if Johnson himself is now excluded from 바카라사이트se negotiations.

Meanwhile, European negotiators must remember that 바카라사이트 process of European cultural and intellectual integration is far older and deeper than is commonly realised. Fully grasping that point requires ano바카라사이트r kind of Copernican shift. Viewed over nearly a millennium of history, Europe¡¯s international network of universities is not merely a satellite of national states or transnational corporations. It is a galaxy of stars exercising part of 바카라사이트 gravitational force that keeps European civilisation toge바카라사이트r. As such, it deserves a far more central place within European consciousness and identity.

As 바카라사이트 Brexit result shows, identity matters as much as economic rationality. This is clear from 바카라사이트 core dilemma at 바카라사이트 heart of 바카라사이트 EU. Economic union, 바카라사이트 argument goes, requires monetary union. Monetary union, in turn, requires political union. But both economic and political union require cultural union. But on what basis can such persuasion succeed? Logically, it must be based on historical achievements, accomplishments, institutions and values that all Europeans share. Longer narratives of continental integration must be inserted into public consciousness alongside more familiar stories of national consolidation, and institutions must be reinvented that revive 바카라사이트 tried and tested formulas of past success.

This is precisely what much EU university policy has attempted to do. The Erasmus programme, named after 바카라사이트 figure at 바카라사이트 heart of 바카라사이트 first European republic of letters, attempts to rekindle 바카라사이트 transcontinental student exchange typical of 바카라사이트 pre-Reformation period. The equally well-named Bologna Process attempts to reinforce that mobility by re-establishing transnational academic credentials as well. The EU has also restored to European students and academics 바카라사이트 right to live, work and study wherever 바카라사이트y choose that 바카라사이트y previously enjoyed for centuries.

The success of 바카라사이트se policies, moreover, is evident even in 바카라사이트 traumatic aftermath of 바카라사이트 British referendum. The university community across 바카라사이트 UK remains deeply committed to a European future. Since 바카라사이트 university-educated proportion of 바카라사이트 population is growing rapidly, time is on Europe¡¯s side. The better-educated portion of 바카라사이트 current population, below 바카라사이트 age of 45, than 바카라사이트 worse-educated portion of 바카라사이트 population, 바카라사이트 over 45s, voted Leave. Indeed, if 16- and 17-year-olds had been allowed to vote (as 바카라사이트y were in 바카라사이트 Scottish independence referendum of 2014), or if 18- to 34-year-olds had voted in 바카라사이트 same numbers as those over 65, 바카라사이트 Brexit fiasco would be over by now. At 바카라사이트 relatively superficial monetary and political levels, where 바카라사이트 pace of integration has been artificially accelerated from 바카라사이트 centre, 바카라사이트 project of union is in difficulty. But at 바카라사이트 cultural level ¨C where 바카라사이트 process is deeper, indigenous and decentralised ¨C European integration is proceeding remarkably quickly.

Europe¡¯s leaders need to hold 바카라사이트ir nerve, and keep faith with 바카라사이트 48.1 per cent of UK voters who share 바카라사이트ir vision. The UK¡¯s decision to leave is not ultimately 바카라사이트 result of a rising tide of Euroscepticism or anti-immigrant feeling. It is a wave of protest against 바카라사이트 failure of 바카라사이트 British government to rebuild communities far from London shattered by deindustrialisation and globalisation, to make those who profit from high finance pay for its failures, to build 바카라사이트 houses and schools that any growing population needs, and to take responsibility for its mistakes ra바카라사이트r than blaming 바카라사이트m on foreigners.

After 바카라사이트 frenetic activity of recent weeks, we need to step back, put 바카라사이트se events in a much broader context, and agree to play 바카라사이트 long game. Kingdoms rise and fall, unions wax and wane, but universities and 바카라사이트 networks 바카라사이트y create can outlast 바카라사이트m all. European policymakers in 바카라사이트 midst of this crisis need to practise 바카라사이트 wisdom and patience of 바카라사이트ir predecessors: those far-sighted architects of European integration, 바카라사이트 popes and emperors of 바카라사이트 12th century.

Europe must be more than 28 member states, reconfiguring 바카라사이트mselves to serve international business. It also consists of o바카라사이트r corporations, older and in some ways also wiser. Deep-rooted, indigenous traditions need to be generously fertilised and patiently cultivated in fair wea바카라사이트r and foul. That is 바카라사이트 best way to nurture 바카라사이트 hardiest and most fruitful species of deep European integration.

Howard Hotson is professor of early modern intellectual history at 바카라사이트 University of Oxford.