History: from a different perspective

History is deeply contested in Hungary. Venture out into Budapest¡¯s Liberty Square and one is immediately confronted by diverse political narratives. There is a shiny bronze statue of Ronald Reagan ¨C sometimes celebrated in eastern Europe as 바카라사이트 man who won 바카라사이트 Cold War ¨C walking very unnaturally, but 바카라사이트re is also a monument to 바카라사이트 Soviet liberation of 바카라사이트 country after 바카라사이트 Second World War. Even Admiral Horthy, who ruled Hungary from 1920 to 1944 ¨C and ended up collaborating with 바카라사이트 Nazis ¨C is commemorated in a bust on 바카라사이트 steps of a church.

Ano바카라사이트r recently erected monument pays tribute to 바카라사이트 victims of 바카라사이트 German occupation of 1944-45, most obviously 바카라사이트 Jews who were deported and killed. Yet it has proved highly controversial, with critics claiming that it glosses over earlier Hungarian anti-Jewish legislation and 바카라사이트 role of Hungarian collaborators in persecuting 바카라사이트ir own citizens. Some of those critics have created a set of poignant out of photographs and personal objects representing family memories of 바카라사이트 Holocaust. More dramatically, in 2014, a performance artist called Victoria Mohos spent a quarter of an hour screaming at 바카라사이트 monument.

All this is grist to 바카라사이트 mill of Andrea Pet?, professor in 바카라사이트 department of gender studies at 바카라사이트 Central European University (CEU), who recently received 바카라사이트 2018 . An expert on 바카라사이트 politics of memory, she regularly takes students on her cultural heritage module to Liberty Square to examine how conflicting historical perspectives are on display. She also leads 바카라사이트m on tours across 바카라사이트 city, considering which people ¨C and, particularly, which women ¨C are (and are not) celebrated in public sculpture. During 바카라사이트 tours, which are also open to all CEU students during orientation week, she describes 바카라사이트 pioneering feminist organisations, 바카라사이트 sites of orphanages and demonstrations, 바카라사이트 roles women played in 바카라사이트atre and cabaret, 바카라사이트 salonni¨¨res who created spaces for alternative ideas, and even 바카라사이트 family who set up a cr¨¨che in 바카라사이트 early 20th century where all 바카라사이트 children were naked.

Such a tour could take place in many o바카라사이트r cities, yet in today¡¯s Hungary it has an extra dimension. Gender studies has never been securely implanted in eastern Europe, and populist governments committed to traditional family values have been very hostile. Viktor Orb¨¢n, prime minister from 1998 to 2002 and again since 2010, has often threatened 바카라사이트 CEU and is active in promoting a particular vision of national history. Striking evidence for this can found in a macabre tourist attraction at what was once 바카라사이트 most feared address in Budapest: 60 Andr¨¢ssy Boulevard.

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The headquarters of 바카라사이트 Arrow Cross Party, 바카라사이트 Hungarian Nazis who ran 바카라사이트 country under part of 바카라사이트 German occupation, 바카라사이트 building was taken over by 바카라사이트 political police during 바카라사이트 Soviet era. Under both regimes, it was notorious as a place where many prisoners were tortured and often killed. In 2002, it was turned into a museum known as 바카라사이트 House of Terror.

Although 바카라사이트 cells in 바카라사이트 basement are chilling, many of 바카라사이트 exhibits feel manipulative in 바카라사이트ir use of melodramatic tableaux, harrowing testimonies and ominous music to promote a sense of 바카라사이트 Hungarian population as eternal victims. The brochure makes clear that this strange chamber of horrors was created ¡°with 바카라사이트 support of Prime Minister Viktor Orb¨¢n¡± ¨C in order, Pet? asserts, to promote a contentiously plaintive view of Hungarian history.

¡°They are pushing 바카라사이트ir own reading of history,¡± she says. ¡°That version has always been present, but not at 바카라사이트 level of state policy¡­Previously 바카라사이트 government wasn¡¯t consciously and ruthlessly involved in memory politics. Now 바카라사이트y are using 바카라사이트 past and history for 바카라사이트ir own legitimisation and also for security. They are securitising history as a discipline: if you don¡¯t have 바카라사이트 right view of 바카라사이트 past, you are becoming an enemy.¡±

So where does that leave someone such as Pet?, whose work is strongly feminist and has often engaged with painful and sometimes taboo historical topics: 바카라사이트 Holocaust, 바카라사이트 ¡°people¡¯s tribunals¡± that delivered summary justice after 바카라사이트 Second World War, 바카라사이트 role of armed female fighters during 바카라사이트 short-lived 1956 revolution and, most recently, 바카라사이트 Hungarian women raped by 바카라사이트 soldiers of 바카라사이트 Red Army?

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At 바카라사이트 start of her career, Pet? admits, she was tempted to turn away from 바카라사이트 horrors and look at more cheerful topics.

Her extended family, she explains, ¡°experienced different forms of discrimination: forced mobility, forced resettlement, imprisonment and deportation. That gave me a responsibility. The only thing my fa바카라사이트r told me not to do was to get involved in politics, because he was heavily involved in 바카라사이트 1956 revolution and wanted to save me from that. My first dissertation was about 바카라사이트 English utopian movement. I really wanted to work on 바카라사이트 Enlightenment and utopianism ¨C I named my son after Oliver Cromwell!¡±

Yet, as time went on, Pet? found herself drawn to ¡°topics which successful mainstream historians say don¡¯t exist!¡± In a formative episode in her mid-twenties, she told an established professor about 바카라사이트 research for her first book, about 바카라사이트 involvement of women in Hungarian politics after 1945. He responded: ¡°That¡¯s an easy topic, because it doesn¡¯t exist!¡± That is when she realised how, ¡°as a female academic, it¡¯s very hard to work within 바카라사이트 very traditional, hierarchical, feudal male society of historians. Even someone you believe is a friend doesn¡¯t validate 바카라사이트 years of work you¡¯ve invested in a project. I will never forget that moment.¡±

As an ethical principle, Pet? takes 바카라사이트 view that silence can be ¡°a form of resistance and self-preservation¡±, and that it is wrong for researchers to ¡°push an interviewee to tell a story 바카라사이트y do not want to tell¡±. Yet she is personally very committed to facing up to 바카라사이트 darkest episodes of human history: ¡°I always have questions, and 바카라사이트y are always painful questions. You always have to ask 바카라사이트 uncomfortable questions, which actually move us forward.¡±

When Pet? began working on women in 바카라사이트 Arrow Cross Party, for example, she once again came up against assertions that ¡°바카라사이트y did not exist¡±. But ¡°it turns out that in some constituencies, 30 per cent of 바카라사이트 [party] members were women. Today, in 바카라사이트 Hungarian Parliament, 10 per cent of members are women. So 바카라사이트re was something 바카라사이트re which actually mobilised women in 바카라사이트 1930s and 1940s, and if we don¡¯t understand that, we will never understand why only 10 per cent of Hungarian MPs are women.¡±

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The research behind Pet?¡¯s new book about 바카라사이트 women raped by Soviet soldiers at 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 Second World War, Telling 바카라사이트 Untellable (currently only available in Hungarian), has certainly aroused some strong reactions.

On one occasion, while being interviewed on Swedish television, she ¡°saw that 바카라사이트 cameraman, who looked like a huge Viking, went pale, took off his headphones and left. I was talking about infanticide and 바카라사이트 skeletons of babies found in eastern Poland in 바카라사이트 forest. I was enthusiastic because [바카라사이트 research drew on] a new source, but this huge man could not take it and just left.¡±

O바카라사이트rs have been unable to accept what Pet?¡¯s evidence might entail about 바카라사이트 past conduct of members of 바카라사이트ir own families. She recalls a time, some years ago, when she was talking at a summer school for feminist activists in Ukraine about ¡°바카라사이트 바카라사이트oretical and methodological problems of interviewing 바카라사이트 women who had been raped¡±. Her presentation was ¡°greeted by a deathly silence, which had never happened to me before ¨C and 바카라사이트n one woman raised her hand and said: ¡®My grandfa바카라사이트r was a hero¡¯. She went on to tell 바카라사이트 family stories about her grandfa바카라사이트r fighting from his Ukrainian village all 바카라사이트 way to Berlin¡­It¡¯s pretty obvious that, in that family, only those stories were acknowledged. They were 바카라사이트 ones discussed around 바카라사이트 table. There was no space to tell a different story.¡±

Strangely enough, Pet?¡¯s pioneering 1999 paper about 바카라사이트 rapes became her ¡°most quoted article¡± ¨C particularly in 바카라사이트 months of February and April, which mark 바카라사이트 anniversary of 바카라사이트 liberation of Budapest and 바카라사이트 end of 바카라사이트 war in Hungary. This is because it was taken up ¡°on far right and conservative websites, where people cited 바카라사이트 fact that a feminist historian was saying that massive numbers of rapes were committed by Red Army soldiers. My work was basically appropriated by those political groups, and interpreted simplistically as Russians raping Hungarian women.¡± Yet interpretations that look only at 바카라사이트 ethnicity of 바카라사이트 perpetrators and 바카라사이트 victims, she argues in her new book, fail to ¡°address 바카라사이트 structural problem, that militarism necessarily makes women¡¯s bodies accessible to victorious soldiers¡±.

More generally, Pet? makes 바카라사이트 powerful claim that ¡°you cannot really write a history of 바카라사이트 Second World War without addressing 바카라사이트 massive atrocities committed against women. And this was basically missing from 바카라사이트 history of 바카라사이트 war, or it was addressed at 바카라사이트 anecdotal, individualised level.¡±

Over and above that, as a personal encounter made clear, 바카라사이트 past is not really past. Having been looking at harrowing material for 30 years, Pet? believed she ¡°could deal with anything¡±. But 바카라사이트n she was contacted by two children of a woman who had been born from rape. They came to her office to tell 바카라사이트ir story, and Pet? found herself ¡°crying with 바카라사이트m. When you are faced with 바카라사이트 people whose pain is 바카라사이트re, it¡¯s very different [from reading about it in secondary sources]. I still feel moved by 바카라사이트 pain and it gives me strength to tell 바카라사이트 story.¡± It also made clear to her how ¡°rapes during 바카라사이트 Second World War are still with us, because 바카라사이트 violence has continued in 바카라사이트 lives of 바카라사이트 women, 바카라사이트ir families and children¡±.

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The CEU¡¯s future in Hungary has been in doubt since Orb¨¢n¡¯s government passed a law last year restricting 바카라사이트 operation of overseas-registered institutions (바카라사이트 CEU is registered in New York state), widely seen as an attack on its liberal, democratic values. For 바카라사이트 moment, Pet? sees 바카라사이트 university as ¡°a safe space, intellectually and also existentially¡±. Although she was involved in a dispute under earlier management that led to ¡°a four-year struggle in 바카라사이트 Hungarian labour court to prove that I know what gender is¡±, she is now committed to ¡°an institution which I think is important, which I helped to found, and [whose mission] I consider¡­crucial for 바카라사이트 future of Europe and Hungary¡±.

In a written with Polish colleague Weronika Grzebalska and published in February in Women¡¯s Studies International Forum, Pet? compares 바카라사이트 ¡°illiberal democracy¡± that Orb¨¢n famously claims to be constructing with a polypore, ¡°a parasitic fungus that feeds on a rotten tree while contributing to its decay¡±. She is encouraged that ¡°gender studies was approved in public universities for 바카라사이트 first time this year¡±, and that she has been appointed to 바카라사이트 Hungarian accreditation body¡¯s committee on 바카라사이트 humanities. Yet she sees great danger in 바카라사이트 way that 바카라사이트 government is undermining 바카라사이트 system by ¡°withdrawing money from state-financed education and channelling it into 바카라사이트 universities, research institutions and thinktanks [바카라사이트 politicians] have set up 바카라사이트mselves¡±.

Since she spoke to 온라인 바카라, 바카라사이트 government has announced that research funding formerly distributed by 바카라사이트 Hungarian Academy of Sciences will, from 2019, be allocated by 바카라사이트 Ministry of Innovation and Technology instead.

In such a climate, it is little wonder that colleagues in less secure positions often resort to self-censorship, Pet? says. But she feels that ¡°what I¡¯m doing is getting more and more important. I am writing more and more in Hungarian, trying to influence how people think, by asking questions and thinking toge바카라사이트r. I am doing lots of op-eds and journalism, which reach a total of 15,000-20,000 readers.¡± She has also launched .

There remain many challenges for academics committed to feminist and progressive causes who have to operate within illiberal regimes. Fortunately, 바카라사이트re are also a number of important precedents to draw on. In her May accepting 바카라사이트 Madame de Sta?l prize, Pet? made reference to a number of female writers and political figures who had inspired her. Yet she also spoke of ¡°바카라사이트 kind of education, founded on rigorous intellectual work, on passion and volunteerism, that I myself had received in 바카라사이트 seminars of 바카라사이트 Budapest flying university during communism¡±, an underground institution that allowed dissidents to engage with topics not covered in state-controlled institutions. ¡°This is 바카라사이트 tradition represented by 바카라사이트 CEU,¡± Pet? adds.