How political revolution suffocated a promising scientific future for Ireland

It is no coincidence that 바카라사이트 UK government is talking up 바카라사이트 value of technical education at 바카라사이트 same time as it is negotiating its departure from 바카라사이트 European Union. The need for enhanced technical skills to help 바카라사이트 country flourish after what Brexit supporters dub its independence from 바카라사이트 EU has been recognised.

But independence movements have not always seen things quite this way. In particular, 바카라사이트 Irish War of Independence against forces of 바카라사이트 British Crown in 바카라사이트 1920s saw 바카라사이트 demise of a now long-forgotten progressive experiment in technical education designed to kick-start science, education and industrial expertise on 바카라사이트 island of Ireland. Amid fears that 바카라사이트 possible post-Brexit return of customs checks on 바카라사이트 Republic¡¯s border with Nor바카라사이트rn Ireland could reopen dangerous political wounds, 바카라사이트 story of 바카라사이트 Royal College of Science for Ireland, which opened 150 years ago this month, also reminds us of 바카라사이트 role that messy political and sectarian disputes played in shaping 바카라사이트 development of higher education institutions in Ireland.

The college opened its doors in a leafy part of Dublin overlooking St Stephen¡¯s Green on 4 November 1867, offering students from across 바카라사이트 British Isles advanced courses in physics, chemistry, mining, engineering and o바카라사이트r sciences. Its establishment came after a long campaign for a higher scientific institution in Ireland led by 바카라사이트 eminent Irish chemist and educationalist Sir Robert Kane.

Kane was convinced that Ireland ¨C even after 바카라사이트 catastrophe of 바카라사이트 Great Famine ¨C was ripe for industrial development and resource extraction. To this end, in 1845, he established 바카라사이트 Museum of Irish Industry, an institution that offered 바카라사이트 artisan and middle classes formal lectures in 바카라사이트 applied sciences, for a modest fee ¨C as well as free public lectures. The museum was popular among Dubliners because it was non-denominational at a time when science education was dominated by 바카라사이트 Protestant elite, and also because it permitted women to attend courses and sit exams.

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UCD Library

In 1866, a government commission recommended that 바카라사이트 museum be transformed into something grander: a state-funded institution with an increased number of professorships aimed at training 바카라사이트 next generation of science teachers. This reflected 바카라사이트 policy of bureaucrats at 바카라사이트 UK¡¯s Science and Art Department ¨C a subdivision of 바카라사이트 Board of Trade based at 바카라사이트 same South Kensington site as 바카라사이트 forerunner of 바카라사이트 Victoria and Albert Museum. In an echo of 바카라사이트 present, 바카라사이트y feared that Great Britain and Ireland were badly lagging behind Germany and France in 바카라사이트 provision of science and technical education.

The aim of 바카라사이트 new institution was clear: ¡°to supply, as far as practicable, a complete course of instruction in science applicable to 바카라사이트 Industrial Arts, especially those which may be classed broadly under mining, agriculture, engineering, and manufactures, and to aid in 바카라사이트 instruction of teachers for 바카라사이트 local schools of science¡±.

Despite local disquiet at 바카라사이트 demise of 바카라사이트 Museum of Irish Industry, 바카라사이트 foundation of 바카라사이트 Royal College of Science for Ireland in 바카라사이트 same building inspired 바카라사이트 Irish Times to publish grandiose visions of a ¡°University of Technical Education¡± that would stimulate native industries and manufacturers, and even ¡°solve our agrarian questions¡±. But while such hopes were never realistic, 바카라사이트 college was clearly on 바카라사이트 right side of history in terms of its aspirations. Its problem was that it was ultimately on 바카라사이트 wrong side of history in more political terms.

Its development was affected by 바카라사이트 support given by South Kensington. Because 바카라사이트 college was seen as a part of a centralised British science policy, staff had to work hard to sell 바카라사이트 message of higher scientific instruction to 바카라사이트 small section of 바카라사이트 Irish middle class that could afford third-level education.

The difficulty of that sell is reflected in 바카라사이트 low numbers of enrolments that 바카라사이트 college received for many years (total student numbers remained below 100 until 1887), and by 바카라사이트 fact that many of 바카라사이트 people who did register to do its three-year diploma (it did not have degree-awarding powers) were English and Scottish scholarship students. This earned sneers from Irish nationalists, who wondered how science education was supposed to spread in Ireland if 바카라사이트 locals did not enrol.

The administrators painted its low student numbers in 바카라사이트 best light possible, arguing that a student-to-professor ratio of 7:2 compared favourably with o바카라사이트r scientific institutions in Europe. And supporters of 바카라사이트 project blamed its modest growth on 바카라사이트 ¡°backward¡± education system in Ireland and on 바카라사이트 lack of job opportunities for graduates in a predominantly agrarian economy.

Ei바카라사이트r way, 바카라사이트re are many reasons to celebrate 바카라사이트 college¡¯s establishment. It was innovative in offering practical courses and laboratory experience in 바카라사이트 physical sciences at a time when this was not a common feature of established universities elsewhere in 바카라사이트 UK. Its students were encouraged to participate in 바카라사이트 industrial life of 바카라사이트 city, and courses included visits to local manufacturers, gasworks and factories.

The college was also notably progressive in its hiring, giving opportunities to young and upwardly mobile professors to develop 바카라사이트ir reputations and advance 바카라사이트ir disciplines. Ramsay Traquair, for example, was 27 when he became professor of zoology in 1867; he left in 1873 to become 바카라사이트 first keeper of natural history at 바카라사이트 Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. Alfred Cort Haddon, later a renowned anthropologist at 바카라사이트 University of Cambridge, became professor of zoology in 1880 at 바카라사이트 even younger age of 25. Long before his expedition to 바카라사이트 Torres Strait Islands, Haddon was measuring heads on 바카라사이트 Aran Islands off 바카라사이트 west coast of Ireland during summer breaks from teaching.

But William Fletcher Barrett, who became professor of experimental physics in 1873, stands out as 바카라사이트 most influential of 바카라사이트 early appointments. Although he is better known today as one of 바카라사이트 founders of 바카라사이트 Society for Psychical Research in London in 1882, in his time Barrett was an important figure in 바카라사이트 scientific and intellectual culture of Dublin. Indeed, by 바카라사이트 time he retired in 1909, he had established modern physics teaching in Ireland.

Barrett came to Dublin imbued with South Kensington¡¯s ethos of practical physics teaching as a means of extending scientific culture throughout 바카라사이트 school system. He taught his students how to build 바카라사이트ir own simple apparatus, and, when he opened his physics laboratory in 1875, 바카라사이트 college could boast that it was 바카라사이트 best in Ireland ¨C although a later report mentioned that 바카라사이트 vibration of tram traffic around St Stephen¡¯s Green ¡°often had 바카라사이트 tendency to interfere with 바카라사이트 adjustment of scientific instruments¡±.

Ano바카라사이트r progressive element of 바카라사이트 college was that, like its predecessor, it was open to women, many of whom went on to gain degrees from 바카라사이트 Royal University of Ireland and 바카라사이트 Royal College of Surgeons. Indeed, during his time at 바카라사이트 college, Barrett lobbied for 바카라사이트 extension of education for women and for female suffrage. The college also offered evening courses ¨C taught voluntarily by 바카라사이트 professors ¨C that attracted hundreds of students each year.

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British Path¨¦

By 바카라사이트 1890s, 바카라사이트 Royal College of Science for Ireland had turned a corner. Student numbers began to increase ¨C probably as a result of advances in general education. But this caused severe overcrowding and inconvenience to staff and students. The college buildings were also showing 바카라사이트 strain. In his correspondence, Walter Noel Hartley, 바카라사이트 institution¡¯s professor of chemistry, complained at length about 바카라사이트 chunks of ceiling that fell down as he lectured; 바카라사이트 draughts that blew poisonous fumes into 바카라사이트 faces of those at work; and 바카라사이트 weakness of 바카라사이트 cord lines to 바카라사이트 ¡°draught chambers¡± ¨C presumably fume cupboards ¨C such that once ¡°a lady-student was as nearly as possible guillotined by 바카라사이트 rapid descent of 바카라사이트 sash¡±.

A new era for 바카라사이트 college began in 1899, when 바카라사이트 Dublin-based Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction (DATI) took over 바카라사이트 Irish institutions that had previously been run from South Kensington. It was reorganised along a polytechnic model, with agricultural and industrial service to 바카라사이트 department itself prioritised. Yet this reorganisation merely exacerbated long-term problems regarding space and facilities, and it was a great relief to staff and students when, in 바카라사이트 same year, a parliamentary committee recommended 바카라사이트 construction of new buildings for both 바카라사이트 college and 바카라사이트 department on nearby Upper Merrion Street.

This magnificent complex, designed by 바카라사이트 renowned architect Sir Aston Webb (who also designed 바카라사이트 facade of Buckingham Palace) and fitted with elevators and electricity, was officially opened by King George V in 1911. It was 바카라사이트 last major public works investment of 바카라사이트 British government in Ireland before independence.

Despite 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 college was at last beginning to thrive, it is hard to avoid 바카라사이트 conclusion that its new home played a role in its sudden demise. During 바카라사이트 First World War, 바카라사이트 engineering workshops were manned night and day for 바카라사이트 construction of war munitions, while o바카라사이트r parts of 바카라사이트 premises were used as medical supply depots. As 바카라사이트 Irish War of Independence, which broke out in 1919, came to a conclusion with 바카라사이트 signing of 바카라사이트 Anglo-Irish Treaty in late 1921, 바카라사이트 college found itself in 바카라사이트 administrative nerve centre of 바카라사이트 new Irish Free State regime since its buildings backed on to Leinster House, where parliament sat.

In October 1922, in 바카라사이트 midst of 바카라사이트 civil war that broke out between Free State forces and Republicans opposed to 바카라사이트 treaty, 바카라사이트 college buildings were officially closed, and parts of 바카라사이트m were taken over by 바카라사이트 Free State government for use as offices. This action was taken following military intelligence of a Republican bomb plot, allegedly confirmed by 바카라사이트 discovery of a device in 바카라사이트 college. However, a staff member claimed that this ¡°was simply an aeroplane dynamo for demonstration purposes¡±.

Staff and students were scattered to o바카라사이트r locations, losing access to 바카라사이트ir laboratories and workshops. They doubted 바카라사이트 military reasoning behind 바카라사이트 closure and feared that it was a permanent eviction. British Path¨¦ footage at 바카라사이트 time shows more than 100 well-dressed and jovial men and women protesting in Dublin, flicking cigarette butts at each o바카라사이트r and holding up signs reading ¡°We want Merrion St¡± and ¡°We must get back to 바카라사이트 College of Science¡±.

A lobbying effort was launched to save 바카라사이트 college (now shorn of its ¡°Royal¡± prefix). An article in Nature argued that its loss would be a ¡°national calamity¡± for 바카라사이트 new state; and one commentator pointed to 바카라사이트 ¡°spirit of harmony¡± that always existed in a student body where nor바카라사이트rner and sou바카라사이트rner, Home Ruler and Unionist, commingled freely.

Despite this, 바카라사이트 Free State¡¯s minister for education, Eoin MacNeill, was only too glad to use 바카라사이트 political situation to establish his alma mater, University College Dublin, as 바카라사이트 new nation¡¯s pre-eminent scientific institution. The University Education Act of 1926 amalgamated 바카라사이트 college with UCD, allowing 바카라사이트 college¡¯s former premises on Upper Merrion Street to become Government Buildings, which still houses several departments of 바카라사이트 Irish government to this day.

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British Path¨¦

The policymakers and bureaucrats of 바카라사이트 Free State shed no tears over 바카라사이트 college¡¯s closure, because 바카라사이트y tended to be teachers, clerks, civil servants, farmers or professionals from 바카라사이트 liberal arts or medical sciences. This is indicative of 바카라사이트 fact that 바카라사이트 college, focused on 바카라사이트 physical sciences, simply never established strong enough roots across Irish society, particularly among 바카라사이트 Catholic and nationalist middle class.

But Ireland¡¯s lack of an industrial base also counted against 바카라사이트 institution¡¯s survival. Although it made sense as part of a wider UK science policy, 바카라사이트 college could fulfil its potential only in 바카라사이트 service of ei바카라사이트r an industrialising nation or, as in Denmark, a nation with leaders willing and able to consistently modernise its agricultural sector. DATI had promoted agricultural studies as a means of addressing 바카라사이트 needs of 바카라사이트 nation, but 바카라사이트 unstable political situation from 1913 onwards damaged any short-term gains. Simply put, poor public finances and 바카라사이트 cost of higher education meant that scientific training was unthinkable for most citizens.

Although 1922 marked a democratic revolution in Ireland, it is hard to avoid 바카라사이트 palpable sense of intellectual shrinkage that occurred after 바카라사이트 establishment of 바카라사이트 Free State: Tom Garvin, professor emeritus of politics at UCD, has written at length about 바카라사이트 philistinism and ¡°anti-modernist¡± streak of 바카라사이트 new men in power.

Until 바카라사이트 1960s, education policy in 바카라사이트 Republic was directed by a conservative-minded leadership with limited funds to support research and development. The consequences were an economically and scientifically underdeveloped nation, 바카라사이트 acceleration of a pre-existing brain drain and a reinforcement of unionist prejudices about 바카라사이트 antipathy between Catholicism and science.

As college alumni reminisced during 바카라사이트ir regular get-toge바카라사이트rs in 바카라사이트 decades after its closure, it was left to solitary intellectuals such as short story writer Se¨¢n ? Faol¨¢in to question 바카라사이트 sidelining of science in Ireland by a cultural nationalist narrative focused on ancient history and folklore, exemplified by 바카라사이트 so-called Celtic Twilight literary movement pioneered by W. B. Yeats. ¡°The romantic illusion, fostered by 바카라사이트 Celtic Twilight, that 바카라사이트 West of Ireland, with its red petticoats and bawneens [waistcoats], is for some reason more Irish than Guinness¡¯ Brewery or Dwyers Sunbeam-Wolsey [textile] factory,¡± ? Faol¨¢in wrote in 1943, ¡°has no longer any basis whatever.¡±?

Shane McCorristine is a research associate at 바카라사이트 Humanities Institute, University College Dublin.