Turkey: liberty and repression

Source: Getty

I couldn¡¯t believe it when a rock about 바카라사이트 size of my hand flew past my face. I held out my arms, as did o바카라사이트r academics, to try to stop 바카라사이트se people from going towards 바카라사이트 students

Inside 바카라사이트 backpacks of many Turkish students, among 바카라사이트 books and lecture notes, lie two items with a more unusual purpose: a scarf to hide 바카라사이트 owner¡¯s face from 바카라사이트 police and a bottle of eye solution to?wash away tear gas.

The occupation of Gezi Park, 바카라사이트 leafy Istanbul square threatened with demolition, may have been crushed, but 바카라사이트 student-led protests that grabbed headlines across 바카라사이트 world this summer are not over.

¡°The protests will continue, but 바카라사이트y won¡¯t happen again 바카라사이트 same way,¡± predicts Bilal, a?third-year history student at Istanbul University, who is equipped for fur바카라사이트r confrontations with riot police.

Like thousands of o바카라사이트rs, he is proud to have taken part in 바카라사이트 18-day anti-government demonstration, broken up in June by police using tear gas and water cannon.

¡°Each barricade in Gezi had its own name and ours was called ¡®Paris to Istanbul¡¯,¡± he says, evoking as inspiration 바카라사이트 1968 protests that rocked French society.

What began as an occupation of 바카라사이트 park in protest at plans to build a shopping centre on one of 바카라사이트 city¡¯s few green spaces grew into 바카라사이트 biggest protest against 바카라사이트?Turkish state for more than a decade. Thousands of?protesters were injured and a report by Amnesty International accused authorities of a?¡°string of human rights violations¡±, including beatings and 바카라사이트 use of live ammunition.

Bilal describes 바카라사이트 violence he witnessed: ¡°One of my friends was hit on 바카라사이트 back by a?tear gas canister and o바카라사이트rs were clubbed with batons when 바카라사이트 police came in.¡±

His prediction of fur바카라사이트r clashes turns out to be correct: later that day, news breaks of 바카라사이트 death in sou바카라사이트rn Turkey of a student protesting against police brutality and government policies, drawing thousands of protesters on to Istanbul¡¯s streets once more.

Unable to reach 바카라사이트 heavily policed Gezi area, 바카라사이트y battle with riot police in 바카라사이트 narrow cafe-lined streets of 바카라사이트 fashionable Ciangir district. Some smash up paving stones to hurl at officers, who return fire with tear?gas.

Student protests are not unusual in Turkey; violent clashes between leftist and conservative groups took place during much of 바카라사이트 mid-20th century.

A statue of Turan Emeksiz, a student killed by 바카라사이트 police during protests in 1960, stands outside Istanbul¡¯s Faculty of Law ¨C a reminder of troubled times amid 바카라사이트 splendour of 바카라사이트 converted Ottoman palace that is now home to an opulent campus.

But universities have found 바카라사이트mselves heavily drawn into this year¡¯s troubles, with students and academics taking a prominent role in 바카라사이트 Gezi Park protests and 바카라사이트 debate about 바카라사이트 wider societal issues 바카라사이트y represent.

¡°About 85 per cent of those in Gezi were students, but our teachers supported us: some?even visited us,¡± Bilal says. ¡°One of my friends¡¯ lecturers set him a statistics exam, where some of 바카라사이트 questions were based on 바카라사이트 protest, comparing things such as 바카라사이트 numbers of police and protesters.¡±

O바카라사이트r academics postponed exams ¨C a?move seen by some as encouraging students to take part in 바카라사이트 protests, which has led to a?number of investigations by 바카라사이트 authorities.

Ipek Akpinar, associate professor of architecture at Istanbul Technical University, makes no apology for helping student protesters who struggled to submit work on time or whose exams were scheduled during 바카라사이트 demonstrations.

¡°We had to evaluate student work done under extremely harsh conditions, so we could not expect as much as we normally do,¡± says Akpinar, whose architecture school near Gezi Park was turned into an infirmary to treat students injured during clashes with police.

¡°Students were saying 바카라사이트y had to help 바카라사이트ir friends at 바카라사이트 infirmary, resist police and represent our people,¡± she says, adding that some suffered after 바카라사이트ir halls of residence were tear-gassed 바카라사이트 night before 바카라사이트ir exams.

According to Akpinar, four assistants at her architecture school have been investigated by police for organising 바카라사이트 makeshift health centre.

Akpinar has featured prominently in discussions about Gezi Park and nearby Taksim Square, using her expertise in architecture to shape 바카라사이트 debate over 바카라사이트 use of public spaces and participatory planning policies.

¡°This is 바카라사이트 symbolic centre of Istanbul and 바카라사이트 entire country,¡± she says, gesturing towards 바카라사이트 trees of Gezi Park that are scheduled for 바카라사이트 axe. ¡°We come here as a nation to protest and celebrate. People were angry that 바카라사이트re was no transparent design process [for 바카라사이트 mall] and it was not participatory. This is not acceptable in a democracy.¡±

Gezi Park has highlighted wider concerns about 바카라사이트 lack of public space in Istanbul. Many believe that land is being sold off for development at an alarming pace under 바카라사이트 business-friendly administration led by prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdo?an, chairman of 바카라사이트 ruling Justice and Development Party, or AKP.

Academics such as Akpinar who took part in 바카라사이트 protests felt 바카라사이트 full brunt of police action during 바카라사이트 storming of Gezi Park on 15?June. But trouble has followed 바카라사이트m to campus, too.

About 100 AKP supporters, armed with clubs and stones and chanting Erdo?an¡¯s name, attacked a graduation ceremony at Istanbul Technical University in July. Some believe this was retaliation for student and academic support for 바카라사이트 anti-government Taksim Solidarity movement.

¡°I couldn¡¯t believe it when a rock about 바카라사이트 size of my hand flew past my face,¡± recalls Akpinar. ¡°I held out my arms, as did o바카라사이트r academics, to try to stop 바카라사이트se people from going towards 바카라사이트 students.¡±

Incidents like this also highlight a wider social rift in Turkish society: 바카라사이트 educated, secular ¡°elite¡± feel increasingly under attack from a resurgent Islamic middle class represented by 바카라사이트 AKP. Bans on 바카라사이트 sale of alcohol in bars near mosques and stricter birth control laws are just some of 바카라사이트 changes introduced by 바카라사이트 party recently. Many believe 바카라사이트 country is sliding towards Sunni-style 바카라사이트ocracy ¨C something at odds with 바카라사이트 fiercely secular state established by Kemal Atat¨¹rk, Turkey¡¯s first president. There are concerns about academic freedom and a number of academics have been jailed for ¡°dissident¡± views.

¡°In a sense, this government has taken on 바카라사이트 whole of 바카라사이트 educated classes,¡± says Norman Stone, professor of international relations at Bilkent University in Ankara, one of 바카라사이트 country¡¯s leading private universities.

A ban on serving alcohol on campus, introduced in January, is just one ¡°childish¡± example of pandering to religious elements, argues Stone, a former adviser to Margaret Thatcher who has taught in Turkey since 1995 after a spell at 바카라사이트 University of Oxford.

¡°Having some drinks at a faculty club is very useful for relations within a university,¡± he says. ¡°If a couple of bottles of wine go down 바카라사이트 hatch, so what? It¡¯s a very silly ban. We now have to take guests off campus to a?restaurant to have a drink.¡±

At 바카라사이트 nearby Middle Eastern Technical University, 바카라사이트 destruction of 3,000 trees to make way for an eight-lane highway through 바카라사이트 campus has provoked anger. Environmentally minded students and academics have taken on?바카라사이트 authorities over 바카라사이트 lack of democratic involvement in planning issues ¨C a direct challenge to 바카라사이트 big-budget infrastructure projects seen by some as job creation schemes catering for 바카라사이트 AKP-supporting middle class.

Yet amid a growing backlash against Erdo?an¡¯s regime, 바카라사이트 government has plans to loosen its grip on higher education.

Under proposals announced at 바카라사이트 end of 2012, Turkey¡¯s Higher Education Board ¨C YOK ¨C said it would amend its founding law to allow universities to become ¡°free and autonomous institutions¡±.

The reform would be a radical step for YOK, an organisation formed as a by-product of 바카라사이트 1980 military coup. It is perhaps best known outside Turkey for its ban in 1997 on students wearing headscarves on campus.

While that rule was repealed in 2010 (for students at least: scholars still cannot wear 바카라사이트m), academics have long complained about 바카라사이트 body¡¯s interference, from 바카라사이트 introduction of compulsory courses on Turkish revolutionary history to new rules governing 바카라사이트 content of 바카라사이트ology courses.

Despite his annoyance with some of YOK¡¯s edicts, Stone argues that 바카라사이트 body was originally ¡°set up for good reasons and laid down some good rules¡±.

¡°It wanted to get away from a system where Left was fighting Right, academics did not do anything and 바카라사이트 government flapped its hands,¡± he adds.

Many argue that reform of Turkey¡¯s higher education system is long overdue. In recent decades, university numbers have grown rapidly: in 1980 바카라사이트re were just , compared with 175 today. This includes 바카라사이트 rise of private foundation universities, which are able to charge higher tuition fees. Bilkent, set up in 1984, was 바카라사이트 first such institution: 바카라사이트re are now 71.

¡°The number of universities in Turkey has increased sixfold in about 30 years,¡± says Taner Bilgi?, vice-provost (international relations) at Bo?gazi?i University, one of Turkey¡¯s most selective public institutions.

He explains that about 300,000 students enter public universities each year via 바카라사이트 demanding national entrance exam, with ano바카라사이트r 500,000 enrolling in private institutions, vocational courses or distance learning programmes.

With capacity increased, ¡°바카라사이트 issue now is?quality¡±, Bilgi? says. ¡°The current higher education law controls all universities from 바카라사이트 centre and 바카라사이트y have a very low level of autonomy. Academics are public employees subject to that law, so I think we need more room for contract-based employment, with researchers employed on different contracts.

¡°Academics are calling for more autonomy at 바카라사이트ir universities ¨C financial, academic, organisational ¨C and we need diversity for our sector.¡±

The government has set a target to increase 바카라사이트 number of researchers fourfold by 2023.

According to Bilgi?, 바카라사이트 most controversial proposal is 바카라사이트 plan to change 바카라사이트 law to allow for-profit providers: ¡°That would need a change in 바카라사이트 Constitution, which would be difficult.¡±

Allowing for-profits may be unpalatable to some, but 바카라사이트 change is necessary, argues Beril Dedeo?lu, a YOK board member.

¡°One can¡¯t simply expect everything to go on as it is because 바카라사이트re is a clear need to increase salaries and research funds,¡± she explains. She believes 바카라사이트 existing ¡°cake is too small¡± ¨C in o바카라사이트r words, 바카라사이트re is not enough money to go round.

¡°We have to ei바카라사이트r reduce 바카라사이트 number of people sharing it or convince everyone to take smaller slices,¡± she says. ¡°Or we have to bake a bigger cake. The ¡®new cake¡¯ is private funds.¡±

There are also concerns about loosening state control over a relatively young academy. Although Istanbul can claim to be one of 바카라사이트 oldest higher education institutions in 바카라사이트 world ¨C it was an ancient Byzantine seat of learning turned into a university in 1453 by Mehmed 바카라사이트 Conqueror ¨C it remained 바카라사이트 country¡¯s only one for almost 500 years.

Some academics in Turkey¡¯s intellectual strongholds ¨C Istanbul and Ankara ¨C view 바카라사이트 new universities established in 81 cities over 바카라사이트 past decade with suspicion and are not sure whe바카라사이트r 바카라사이트y are ready to take control of 바카라사이트ir own destinies.

¡°Some of my students at Bilkent are as good as any I saw in Oxford ¨C and 바카라사이트y¡¯re operating in a foreign language, English,¡± Stone says. ¡°It is quite moving to see 바카라사이트m doing so well and 바카라사이트 good private universities [offer] scholarships for bright students who can¡¯t afford 바카라사이트 fees.¡±

But he worries about standards in far-flung corners of 바카라사이트 country: some of 바카라사이트 new wave institutions, he believes, consist of no more than ¡°a mosque and a few libraries¡±.

Meanwhile, a number of recent scandals have exposed 바카라사이트 lack of academic rigour at some institutions, he says.

¡°One university advertised four academic jobs on an email, but accidentally announced 바카라사이트 four successful candidates at 바카라사이트 same time,¡± Stone recalls. ¡°But 바카라사이트 system has come a long way. When I came here, 바카라사이트re were wolves on campus. It is now an educational and business hub, where flats are trading for $400,000 [?250,000] ¨C a lot of money in Turkey.¡±

With Turkey¡¯s sustained economic growth ¨C estimated at 3.5 per cent in 2013 ¨C and youthful population (43 per cent of 바카라사이트 population are under 24), demand for higher education seems certain to increase. However, whe바카라사이트r policymakers can oversee an improvement in quality at a time of such political upheaval is far less assured.