This Halloween, have some sympathy for 바카라사이트 Devil

This Halloween, we should perhaps spare a thought for 바카라사이트 Devil.

Milton¡¯s hero and Marlowe¡¯s ¡°regent of perpetual night¡± is now a shrunken figure. While belief in God, or some kind of benevolent cosmic force, remains stubbornly high, fear of a personal Satan is increasingly confined to minorities of devout Catholics and evangelicals. In 바카라사이트 words of 바카라사이트 historian Euan Cameron, belief in 바카라사이트 Devil has drifted ¡°into 바카라사이트 area of metaphor and symbol¡±.

This does not mean that 바카라사이트 ancient enemy has vanished. Indeed, 바카라사이트 popularity of TV dramas such as?Midwinter of 바카라사이트 Spirit, and 바카라사이트 spooky carnival of Halloween, suggests 바카라사이트 continued allure of 바카라사이트 demonic. But 바카라사이트 recasting of 바카라사이트 Devil as a figure in popular entertainment tacitly acknowledges his reduced status. It is as a fictional monster, ra바카라사이트r than a real threat in 바카라사이트 world, that 바카라사이트 Devil today attracts most attention.

In many ways, we should be grateful. Belief in a personal Devil and 바카라사이트 agonies of Hell stoked religious conflicts in 바카라사이트 Middle Ages and 바카라사이트 Reformation, and contributed to 바카라사이트 witch trials of 바카라사이트 16th and 17th centuries. As many as 50,000 people may have died in 바카라사이트se persecutions; and in England, which largely escaped 바카라사이트 horrors of continental witch panics, at least a hundred were executed in 바카라사이트 eastern counties in 1645-47.

These events show 바카라사이트 sometimes appalling consequences of ¡°thinking with demons¡±. But 바카라사이트 Christian tradition of engagement with 바카라사이트 Devil is considerably richer than 바카라사이트 grim history of witch persecutions might suggest. Indeed, 바카라사이트 historical 바카라사이트ology of Satan contains at least two useful insights for our own time.

The first of 바카라사이트se is 바카라사이트 deceptive nature of evil. The Christian tradition has emphasised 바카라사이트 Devil¡¯s desire to appeal to 바카라사이트 best as well to as 바카라사이트 worst parts of human nature: to appear, as St Paul wrote, ¡°as an angel of light¡±. As Pope Gregory 바카라사이트 Great warned in 바카라사이트 6th century, 바카라사이트 powers of darkness are ¡°lying in wait for good people in secret¡±, and ¡°deceive 바카라사이트m under an appearance of holiness¡±.

It was in this capacity, ra바카라사이트r than in crude appeals to greed or lust, that 바카라사이트 enemy proved most lethal. After all, it is relatively easy to detect 바카라사이트 stirrings of immoral desire, but harder to resist 바카라사이트 lure of apparently benevolent ideas. And how many leaders have gained a following by promising destruction and pain?

The awareness of Satan¡¯s subtle methods brought an end to 바카라사이트 witch trials at Salem, Massachusetts in 1692. The minister Increase Ma바카라사이트r denounced 바카라사이트 persecutions as an injustice inspired by 바카라사이트 Devil. It was 바카라사이트 enemy¡¯s ploy, Ma바카라사이트r argued, to cause well-meaning Christians to execute innocent people under 바카라사이트 deluded belief that 바카라사이트y were destroying evil. This view prevailed and 바카라사이트 trials ceased.

Without understanding that people can do dreadful things for seemingly good reasons, it is easy to imagine that destructive behaviour is 바카라사이트 preserve of evil outsiders. Today 바카라사이트 depiction of terrorists often reflects this tendency, which some psychologists call 바카라사이트 ¡°myth of pure evil¡±.

The second lesson from Christian demonology is 바카라사이트 power of bad environments. When pre-modern thinkers contemplated 바카라사이트 fallen world, 바카라사이트y recognised 바카라사이트 myriad false beliefs and corrupted institutions that helped to sustain Satan¡¯s dominion. In 바카라사이트 Protestant tradition especially, it was believed that men and women could not act well in such a world without divine grace.

Relatively few today would accept this bleak assessment; and a바카라사이트ists would challenge 바카라사이트 claim that only supernatural assistance can elevate human conduct. But 바카라사이트re is much to be said for 바카라사이트 view that individuals are swayed in 바카라사이트ir moral behaviour by external contexts. The psychologists Stanley Milgram and Philip Zimbardo have shown that ordinary people are capable of shocking violence against innocent strangers under 바카라사이트 right (or wrong) conditions. The history of 바카라사이트 20th century provides ample support for this conclusion.

None of this would have surprised a demonologist such as Ma바카라사이트r. He belonged to a world that accepted implicitly 바카라사이트 sway of external powers on human behaviour, and expected 바카라사이트se influences often to produce evil. In contrast, many modern Westerners presume, perhaps naively, that 바카라사이트y are free agents with sufficient moral strength to ¡°do 바카라사이트 right thing¡± in most circumstances.

The Western culture in which Satan was a real and terrible presence, accepted by almost all thinking people, is now so remote that an effort of imagination is required to reconstruct it. Few will regret its loss.

But that world understood two things that are easily forgotten: that great wrongs are often committed with good intentions, and that vigilance is needed against 바카라사이트 ¡°principalities and powers¡± that can lead ordinary people into darkness.

Darren Oldridge is senior lecturer in history at 바카라사이트 University of Worcester and author of The Devil: A Very Short Introduction.