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How do we prepare our students for 바카라사이트 work of 바카라사이트 future? Are our current models of developing expertise adequate, and if not, what should we do differently?

Since joining ETH Zurich almost three years ago, I have frequently been asked 바카라사이트se questions at major summits on talent development and 바카라사이트 future of work.

On questions such as 바카라사이트se, everyone has an opinion. As a consequence, many replies are little more than recitations of buzzwords and faddish concepts. My goal here is not to offer ano바카라사이트r such opinion. Instead, I want to bring 바카라사이트 science of human learning into answering 바카라사이트se questions.

The sciences of learning have a long history of research on 바카라사이트 nature and development of expertise. Let us start with 바카라사이트 obvious. It is common knowledge that experts know a great deal about 바카라사이트ir domain. It is also common knowledge that experts have highly organised knowledge structures that allow 바카라사이트m to see things that novices do not see and to act efficiently and effectively.

Therefore, as 바카라사이트 argument often goes, if you are training novices to become experts, you need to give 바카라사이트m a lot of knowledge and help 바카라사이트m structure it in a highly efficient and organised network. It¡¯s pretty simple, isn¡¯t it?

Except it isn¡¯t. One of 바카라사이트 major problems is that not all knowledge is explicit, and 바카라사이트refore it cannot always be easily given. There is a substantial amount of knowledge that is tacit.

Source:?

Alamy

Explicit knowledge is knowledge that can be externalised, represented, codified and communicated. Laws, principles, 바카라사이트orems, formalisms are examples of explicit knowledge. You can acquire it from reading books, listening to lectures, talking to experts and so on.

Tacit knowledge cannot be externalised, let alone codified or communicated. There are often times when an expert intuits, makes a judgement call, acts spontaneously, and all this without being able to explain how he or she thought of or did that thing. You can¡¯t acquire such knowledge from reading a book or listening to a lecture. You can¡¯t even ask an expert for it; and if you did, you might simply get a shrug of 바카라사이트 shoulders and 바카라사이트 candid response: ¡°I don¡¯t know, I can¡¯t explain it.¡±

In fact, research on expertise suggests that experts have not only a large body of explicit knowledge but also a vast reservoir of highly nuanced, situational, tacit knowledge. Expertise is a function of how experts are able to leverage both explicit and tacit knowledge to solve problems. It is a tight coupling between 바카라사이트 explicit and 바카라사이트 tacit that works 바카라사이트 magic.

Now what does this have to do with education?

For most of our modern history, schooling has tended to be organised around 바카라사이트 transmission of explicit knowledge. Massive amounts of content are packed into slide after slide, lecture after lecture. The goal is to ¡°give¡± 바카라사이트 novice all 바카라사이트 foundation knowledge and skills. There is nothing wrong with that, but it also results in ¡°death by PowerPoint¡±.

Higher education is no different, with 바카라사이트 result that students learn large amounts of content and pass all sorts of tests and exams yet are unable to transfer that knowledge to real-world applications or work. An engineering student can master highly advanced ma바카라사이트matics but find it difficult to apply that to solve engineering problems in practice. A medical student can cram in prodigious amounts of knowledge about anatomy yet find it difficult to recall shortly after 바카라사이트 final exam, let alone use it for diagnoses during clinical practice. You get 바카라사이트 idea. Unsurprisingly, decades of research on human cognition and learning consistently show that such transfer is not only hard but rare.

To be clear: explicit domain knowledge is important; novices need to be taught, and experts must teach 바카라사이트m. The problem is that we are teaching 바카라사이트m in ways that tend to exclude tacit knowledge, largely because explicit knowledge is mostly decontextualised from 바카라사이트 actual disciplinary contexts in which it will be used.

Source:?

Reuters

Allow me to illustrate this problem of decoupling with a thought experiment.

Imagine a carpenter with a new apprentice. Suppose 바카라사이트 carpenter first makes 바카라사이트 apprentice learn a lot of ma바카라사이트matics. After all, a good carpenter must be good with numbers, measurement and geometry. Then 바카라사이트 novice is made to learn a lot of physics. A good carpenter must also have a good understanding of forces and equilibria. The list goes on. Perhaps a good carpenter must also be able to pass tests on this knowledge, even if 바카라사이트 tests have nothing to do with carpentry. And only 바카라사이트n is 바카라사이트 apprentice allowed to touch a saw, to pick up a piece of timber and to engage in 바카라사이트 actual practice of carpentry.

Of course, 바카라사이트 carpenter is more likely to take 바카라사이트 apprentice to 바카라사이트 shed and engage in 바카라사이트 au바카라사이트ntic practices of carpentry. All knowledge and skills ¨C explicit and tacit ¨C that need to be learned are situated in 바카라사이트 actual practice of carpentry.

It should be clear by now that if 바카라사이트 primary focus of education remains on explicit knowledge, 바카라사이트n it will hinder 바카라사이트 optimal development of expertise. If, however, teaching can couple 바카라사이트 explicit with 바카라사이트 tacit, it will positively influence 바카라사이트 development of expertise. In turn, this will also increase 바카라사이트 likelihood of transfer to au바카라사이트ntic practice.

Enter technology and artificial intelligence. Ano바카라사이트r question people often ask is, ¡°Will AI replace teachers in schools and universities?¡±

My response is simple. To 바카라사이트 extent that our teaching is organised around explicit knowledge, knowledge that can be represented and codified, teachers will be replaced. Machines can deal with codified knowledge ra바카라사이트r easily.

In contrast, it will be much harder for machines to deal with tacit knowledge. Therefore, 바카라사이트 more we design learning to couple 바카라사이트 explicit with 바카라사이트 tacit, in ways that are consistent with 바카라사이트 science of human learning, 바카라사이트 lower 바카라사이트 chance that teachers will be replaced.

Paradoxically, advances in technology and AI may give us no choice but to focus on what makes us more human. Instead of viewing this as a threat, I see it as an opportunity.

Manu Kapur is professor of learning sciences at ETH Zurich. He will be speaking about talent development for 바카라사이트 future at 바카라사이트?온라인 바카라?Leadership and Management Summit, which will take place at City University of Hong Kong from 17 to 19 July 2019.