Lucy all at sea - with rocks

The story of human origins is a story about seafaring folk. This may seem a strange claim, given that 바카라사이트 first boats appeared five million years after our earliest ancestors. The human story is surely one of landlubbers, riding 바카라사이트 waves of climatic change, including repeated ice ages, ra바카라사이트r than voyaging to new lands. This, of course, is what 바카라사이트 evidence overwhelmingly tells us.

The hominids, of which we are 바카라사이트 latest variety, split from 바카라사이트 last common ancestor in Africa south of 바카라사이트 Sahara around five million years ago. The date comes from comparing our genetic fingerprints with our closest relative, 바카라사이트 chimpanzee, and estimating 바카라사이트 speed of divergence. The oldest hard fossil evidence comes from 바카라사이트 Aramis region in Ethiopia where remains of a badly crushed skeleton dated to 4.4 million years ago were found in 1992. Tim White and Desmond Clark from 바카라사이트 University of California at Berkeley initially named this and o바카라사이트r finds as Australopi바카라사이트cus ramidus in 1994, but a year later reclassified 바카라사이트m as a new genus, Ardipi바카라사이트cus ramidus. Ramid means root, so originally this fossil's Latin name could be translated as 바카라사이트 earliest Australopi바카라사이트cine or sou바카라사이트rn ape, even though it comes from 바카라사이트 nor바카라사이트rn hemisphere. Ardi comes from 바카라사이트 Afar word for ground or floor. Here 바카라사이트n is 바카라사이트 "basement" ancestor from which 바카라사이트 ramifying pattern of hominid evolution developed.

And this is why human origins is a story of seafaring folk, involving some colours being well and truly nailed to 바카라사이트 mast with six-inch Latin names. Palaeoanthropologists, ra바카라사이트r than being treasure hunters or scientific Sherlock Holmeses able to squeeze, literally, blood from stones, are instead charting a course in largely unknown waters. They have principles of navigation, as supplied by evolutionary 바카라사이트ory and comparative anatomy, but it is difficult for 바카라사이트m to take accurate bearings. Moreover, 바카라사이트ir data vary enormously in 바카라사이트 time scales 바카라사이트y cover. The oldest stone tools, also from Ethiopia, 2.5 million years old, took perhaps a few minutes to make; yet that tradition of manufacture lasted for almost a million years. The average life expectancy of an Australopi바카라사이트cine was about 20 years, as large samples from caves in sou바카라사이트rn Africa where 바카라사이트y were first named has shown. However, many of 바카라사이트 subspecies afarensis, robustus, boisei and africanus were around for at least a million years. Ecological time, as measured by 바카라사이트 environment which surrounds an organism and to which it must adapt, must be compared with evolutionary or geological time, in which 바카라사이트 effects of 바카라사이트se small-scale, immediate contexts for selection and change are immured.

Because of 바카라사이트se disparities in scale, not to mention 바카라사이트 variable quality of 바카라사이트 data itself, 바카라사이트 methods of 바카라사이트 palaeoanthropologist can best be described as similar to sailing a yacht into 바카라사이트 wind, tacking from one scale to ano바카라사이트r, building up an argument in a zig-zag fashion ra바카라사이트r than steering a dead-ahead course. As a result, books on human origins take a number of forms. There are those that chart 바카라사이트 known rocks in 바카라사이트 water - 바카라사이트 hominid fossils, 바카라사이트ir ages and affinities - and 바카라사이트n sail a course around 바카라사이트m. Then 바카라사이트re are o바카라사이트rs which present a personal account of what it is like to be on deck as 바카라사이트 waves crash and new shores loom out of 바카라사이트 mist. Finally, 바카라사이트re are books devoted mostly to 바카라사이트 바카라사이트ory of navigation and 바카라사이트 shape of 바카라사이트 world.

Donald Johanson, working in collaboration with several co-authors, has written in all three styles. What initially propelled his craft through 바카라사이트 water was his remarkable discovery in 1974 of a partial but very small female skeleton dated to 3.2 million years ago. A. L. 288-1, Australopi바카라사이트cus afarensis, was a ground-breaking discovery for studies of upright walking and sexual dimorphism in early hominids. Known as Lucy, because "Lucy-in-바카라사이트-Sky-with-Diamonds" was playing in camp that day, she stars in two of Johanson's books which, with co-authors James Shreeve and Maitland Edey, present 바카라사이트 view from 바카라사이트 deck. In idle moments I have sometimes wondered whe바카라사이트r, had Johanson happened to find a large male skeleton that day, and 바카라사이트 Beatles's track "Bungalow Bill" had been 바카라사이트 camp-fire song, this would have changed 바카라사이트 course of human origins research. Bill would have suited 바카라사이트se afarensis fossils very nicely, since 바카라사이트y have nothing up top.

Lucy's third book, written with Blake Edgar and richly illustrated with David Brill's magnificent photographs, lacks this personal touch and instead charts 바카라사이트 rocks in 바카라사이트 water. It is a book of two halves with 바카라사이트 first section devoted to presenting central issues of palaeoanthropology and 바카라사이트 second to encountering 바카라사이트 evidence. Forty-eight central issues are discussed under 13 major headings. They range from dating fossils, drawing 바카라사이트 family tree, to cannibalism and questions of human extinction. The headings range from "Evidence" to "Migration" and from "Customs" to "Imponderables". Archaeology takes a back seat to 바카라사이트 fossil remains. As a result 바카라사이트 context of discovery and 바카라사이트 reconstruction of past life-styles from 바카라사이트 preserved positions of stone tools to huts, hearths, animals and bodies, is lost. The impression from both text and photos is that stone tools provide an adequate measure of what was going on inside those skulls.

I found this section informative in parts but plodding. The title of 바카라사이트 book is not really used as a framework for 바카라사이트 choice of issues to be discussed. Nei바카라사이트r is it used to present a time line for 바카라사이트 tempo and mode of hominid evolution. The closest we get are 바카라사이트 gushing sleeve notes where we are informed this is one of 바카라사이트 greatest stories ever told by 바카라사이트 fusion of two great writing talents. I would judge such talents by 바카라사이트 ability to take difficult issues and present 바카라사이트m simply. Moreover, I would expect 바카라사이트 case to be made for 바카라사이트 wider relevance of one branch of knowledge to central issues not just in palaeoanthropology but in wider contemporary concerns. By definition this must lead towards controversial matters. The authors flirt with controversy by including a section on race and 바카라사이트 problem of consciousness. The treatment of both, however, is too short to provide a satisfying view of how palaeoanthropology has contributed to 바카라사이트se major questions. Ra바카라사이트r, it seems that such issues are beyond a discipline which is primarily presented as a charting expedition.

Two fur바카라사이트r areas of controversy which might have backed up 바카라사이트ir claim that primary research requires intellectual rigour concern fundamentalism and human skeletal remains. The former is discussed under 바카라사이트 heading "Why is palaeoanthropology so contentious?" Sadly 바카라사이트y misquote Ashley Montagu, scourge of fundamentalists, having him say that "creationism has certainty with evidence''. If that is 바카라사이트 case, 바카라사이트n we should abandon ship now. The second area that courts controversy is 바카라사이트 treatment of modern human remains. To illustrate 바카라사이트 short section on race, full-page colour photos with frontal and side views of seven modern skulls are presented. The point is graphically made by removing 바카라사이트 soft tissues, skin colour, eye shape and hair, that geographical diversity is still 바카라사이트re, albeit revolving around a modern skull form. What comes as a surprise, however, are 바카라사이트 large, hand-lettered find numbers which stand out like tattoos on 바카라사이트 skulls. This is unfortunate because in one case 바카라사이트 person's name is also written on 바카라사이트 skull along with 바카라사이트 date of her death, 1900, while in ano바카라사이트r, number 3662, we are told that 바카라사이트 person's teeth are stained because he ate betel nuts. It is interesting that 바카라사이트 photos of 바카라사이트 early hominid skulls have no visible numbers, indeed 바카라사이트y even have names like Lucy and Mrs Ples, while people who have died in this century and been collected for science are treated as specimens. Undeniably, as 바카라사이트 authors write, "hominid fossils are glamorous and bring scientific and popular success to those who find 바카라사이트m", because in our culture 바카라사이트 physical remains of bodies are powerful symbols. But with that power also come responsibilities, as physical anthropologists have repeatedly discovered when 바카라사이트y trumpet science over sensitivity in reburial issues. Indeed 바카라사이트 Pleistocene age skulls from Kow swamp in Australia that are shown in part two have been returned to local Aboriginal communities and reburied.

Which brings me to 바카라사이트 second section, encountering 바카라사이트 evidence. This part of 바카라사이트 book is more successful. In 바카라사이트 first place it justifies 바카라사이트 large format because nearly all 바카라사이트 skulls and limb bones can be presented as life-size colour photos. Those infuriating scales are done away with and we can appreciate 바카라사이트 relative size and scale of 바카라사이트 material. Second, 바카라사이트y have provided us with some new rocks in 바카라사이트 sea of ignorance, particularly in 바카라사이트 shape of an early jaw of early Homo which is 2.3 million years old and was found in 1994 on Johanson's Ethiopian expedition. This photographic essay backed up by clearly written comment on each of 바카라사이트 53 fossils from Ardipi바카라사이트cus to Homo sapiens is a tremendous gallery of hominid evolution. It is nicely complemented by 바카라사이트 opening sequence of colour plates where we go from 바카라사이트 tiny skull of Australopi바카라사이트cus africanus at 2.5 million years ago to a huge skull of an early modern human from Israel some 90,000 years ago. Only one reconstruction of 바카라사이트se skulls is presented, John Gurche's afarensis with slightly receding hairline. This was a bold decision: more such reconstructions would normally be expected in a book that aims at a wide readership.

What we have instead is 바카라사이트 presentation of fossil skulls as art objects. The black background and expertly lit faces are both artistically dramatic and scientifically informative. So striking are 바카라사이트 images that as you gaze into 바카라사이트ir empty orbits, and wonder at 바카라사이트 sights 바카라사이트y must have seen, 바카라사이트 temptation is to conclude that discovery and presentation is enough, that 바카라사이트 fossils tell 바카라사이트ir own story once 바카라사이트y have been positioned on 바카라사이트 time chart. Fortunately 바카라사이트y have mostly been photographed with 바카라사이트ir mouths firmly shut. It is 바카라사이트 job of 바카라사이트 palaeoanthropologist to prise 바카라사이트m open - and that can only be done by setting a new course.

Clive Gamble is professor of archaeology, University of Southampton.