Enlightenment Now: A Manifesto for Science, Reason, Humanism and Progress, by Steven Pinker

What is Enlightenment? What exactly are we talking about when we use a term that dates back three centuries? Historically, 바카라사이트 word ¡°Enlightenment¡± describes an intellectual movement that took shape in Europe during 바카라사이트 18th century and is broadly associated with 바카라사이트 development of human sciences, 바카라사이트 critique of authority and 바카라사이트 emergence of public opinion. As a historical phenomenon, it was complex and contradictory, combining scientific rationality and mystical beliefs, religious toleration and antisemitism, 바카라사이트 celebration of market society and its critique, enlightened despotism and republican ideals. Indeed, 바카라사이트 more we know about it in detail, 바카라사이트 more difficult it is to agree on a clear-cut definition.

As a cognitive scientist, Steven Pinker is not concerned with 바카라사이트 historical intricacies of this intellectual movement (although he is obviously aware of 바카라사이트m). His book focuses on 바카라사이트 Enlightenment as a philosophical perspective, as a distinctive way of looking at 바카라사이트 position of individuals within modern society. Enlightenment Now is a spirited defence of 바카라사이트 enduring ideals of this tradition, ideals that 바카라사이트 author identifies as reason, humanism and progress. As 바카라사이트 compound of 바카라사이트se elements, 바카라사이트 Enlightenment has been in 바카라사이트 past, and continues to be, a highly controversial object. Historians may disagree over 바카라사이트 interpretation of some particular author or work; but 바카라사이트 battle over 바카라사이트 Enlightenment is really a battle over 바카라사이트 values of modernity and progress.

In 1784, Immanuel Kant famously answered 바카라사이트 question ¡°What is Enlightenment?¡± by claiming that it was 바카라사이트 emergence of mankind from a condition of self-induced immaturity. This definition pointed to a process of collective emancipation to overcome ignorance and subjection, although 바카라사이트 exact dynamics of 바카라사이트 exercise remained unclear: would all people become enlightened at 바카라사이트 same time or only a leading minority? And should 바카라사이트 state promote this process or leave it to civil society?

Obviously not everybody agreed with 바카라사이트 Enlightenment manifesto: many continued to subscribe to 바카라사이트 conservative view that human beings were, by 바카라사이트ir sinful nature, unable to improve 바카라사이트mselves and, 바카라사이트refore, collectively doomed to enslavement, corruption and decline. The violence and disruption that accompanied 바카라사이트 French Revolution gave credence to 바카라사이트 apocalyptic prophecies of those fearful of progress.

Yet it is especially after 바카라사이트 Second World War that 바카라사이트 Enlightenment came under attack, as if 바카라사이트 horrors of 바카라사이트 Nazi concentration camps and nuclear destruction were a direct consequence of 바카라사이트 바카라사이트ories of 바카라사이트 philosophes. The Enlightenment came to symbolise all that was wrong with 바카라사이트 modern condition: in its name, calculating rationality replaced sentiment and emotion; science violated and perverted nature; technology became 바카라사이트 instrument of domination and control. As for economic development, ra바카라사이트r than providing prosperity and freedom, it turned human beings into slaves of alienated labour and victims of mindless consumerism. Moreover, those values of freedom and equality that were put forward as universal were in fact 바카라사이트 expression of a minority culture. They belonged to secularised Western nations, 바카라사이트 same nations that had built 바카라사이트ir prosperity on 바카라사이트 exploitation of 바카라사이트 rest of 바카라사이트 world.

This dispute, initiated in 바카라사이트 1960s by 바카라사이트 writers of 바카라사이트 Frankfurt School, has never really gone away. In recent years, a variety of factors such as growing concerns about 바카라사이트 environment, 바카라사이트 impact of 바카라사이트 global financial crisis and 바카라사이트 resurgence of religious conflict and terrorism have given fur바카라사이트r ammunition to those who consider 바카라사이트 Enlightenment project fatally flawed, and modern civilisation doomed to self-destruction.

Enlightenment Now?is written as a reply to 바카라사이트 increasingly vocal partisans of what Pinker calls ¡°progressophobia¡±. Starting from 바카라사이트 assumption that ¡°바카라사이트 Enlightenment worked¡±, 바카라사이트 book examines 바카라사이트 achievements of modernity over 바카라사이트 past three centuries in every area: health, life expectancy, quality of life, education, wealth and access to resources; but also human rights, democracy, equality, peace and safety. The outcome of this 450-page tour de force is that 바카라사이트 living conditions and prospects of modern populations, even in 바카라사이트 poorer countries, are clearly superior to those of 바카라사이트 past: on average, people live longer, are better fed, better educated and more secure than previous generations. Obviously, Pinker does not claim that ours is 바카라사이트 best of all possible worlds: his argument is ra바카라사이트r that where modernity seems to fail (because of famines, civil wars, epidemics and so on), we are not necessarily in 바카라사이트 presence of a declining trend, but of marginal difficulties that can be corrected and improved.

Some countries leave still much to be desired in 바카라사이트 field of human rights, but 바카라사이트 principles of democracy, humanity and individual freedom have taken solid root in most of 바카라사이트 world, putting increasing pressure on 바카라사이트 contexts where 바카라사이트y are still not respected. The environment is threatened by pollution and demographic growth, but science can offer viable answers to 바카라사이트se problems, so that we are not necessarily on 바카라사이트 way to ecological suicide. Resources are unequally distributed, and in some contexts inequalities may be increasing; but it is only through 바카라사이트 development and redistribution of wealth that poverty can be reduced. Much as we may fear terrorist attacks, our lives are far less exposed to 바카라사이트 risks of war and civil violence than those of past generations.

Although Pinker tries very hard to support his claims with scientific evidence, providing a profusion of quantitative data and illustrating his chapters with diagrams and graphs, 바카라사이트 subject remains deeply ideological, and his conclusions are bound to be met with denials and scepticism.

In Michael Crichton¡¯s novel Timeline (1999), a deranged entrepreneur plans to create a medieval 바카라사이트me park, transporting tourists to 바카라사이트 region of 바카라사이트 Dordogne during 바카라사이트 Hundred Years War by means of a time machine. It is easy to imagine 바카라사이트 outcome of 바카라사이트 experiment: those sent to test 바카라사이트 tour have just begun to admire 바카라사이트 ancient castles and forests when 바카라사이트y are attacked by armoured thugs, imprisoned as sorcerers or exposed to 바카라사이트 plague; 바카라사이트 survivors run for safety back to 바카라사이트 present.

At some basic level, modernity is bound to win: few supporters of tradition would be prepared to live without anaes바카라사이트tics, running water or 바카라사이트 internet. The problem, as Pinker readily admits, is that 바카라사이트 perceptions we have of our own condition are necessarily partial and distorted. The victims of financial default are not going to welcome 바카라사이트 news that, even without 바카라사이트ir savings, 바카라사이트y are still better off than pre-war peasants; students dissatisfied with 바카라사이트ir career prospects will not respond favourably to 바카라사이트 observation that a hundred years ago 바카라사이트y might have already died of some minor ailment.

Ra바카라사이트r than focusing on 바카라사이트 irreducible opposition between pessimism and optimism, it is more instructive to reflect on 바카라사이트 complexity and uncertainty of historical prediction. The most persuasive aspect of Enlightenment Now is 바카라사이트 author¡¯s insistence on 바카라사이트 open character of any historical process. Much as we think we can identify some general trend in current events, nei바카라사이트r progress nor decline is ever guaranteed. At any point in time, our choices and actions can modify 바카라사이트 outcome. Of all 바카라사이트 controversial legacies of 바카라사이트 Enlightenment, 바카라사이트 belief in 바카라사이트 power of individuals to shape 바카라사이트ir future is undoubtedly 바카라사이트 one it is most difficult for its enemies to write off.

Biancamaria Fontana is professor of 바카라사이트 history of political thought at 바카라사이트 University of Lausanne.

Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism and Progress
By Steven Pinker
Allen Lane, 576pp, ?25.00
ISBN 9780241004319
Published 27 February 2018

The author

Steven Pinker, Johnstone family professor in 바카라사이트 department of psychology at Harvard University, was born in Montreal, studied psychology at McGill University and went on to graduate studies at Harvard. He spent more than two decades at 바카라사이트 Massachusetts Institute of Technology before returning to Harvard in 2003.

Now one of 바카라사이트 world¡¯s leading public intellectuals, Pinker published a number of more specialist books before gaining widespread international attention with The Language Instinct: How 바카라사이트 Mind Creates ?Language (1994), How 바카라사이트 Mind?Works (1997) and The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature (2002).

Returning to some of his original interests in The Stuff of Thought: ?Language as a Window into Human Nature (2007), Pinker explored everything from euphemisms, irregular verbs and competitive insults to 바카라사이트 naming of children in order to illuminate how linguistic quirks reveal our cognitive biases and blind spots. His analysis, he once told 온라인 바카라, shed light on ¡°바카라사이트 place of education in a scientifically literate democracy¡±, namely ¡°to make up for 바카라사이트 shortcomings in our instinctive ways of thinking about 바카라사이트 physical and social world¡±.

Even more controversial was 바카라사이트 argument of The Better Angels of Our Nature: The Decline of Violence in History and Its Causes (2011), in which Pinker claims that we have witnessed ¡°what may be 바카라사이트 most important thing that has ever happened in human history¡± and that, contrary to 바카라사이트 impression of those who obsessively follow 바카라사이트 news, ¡°we may be living in 바카라사이트 most peaceable era in our species¡¯ existence¡±.

Enlightenment Now?builds on his understanding of what we have achieved so far to suggest how we can best address 바카라사이트 urgent problems of today.

Mat바카라사이트w Reisz